McGuire, B. A. 2021 census of interstellar, circumstellar, extragalactic, protoplanetary disk, and exoplanetary molecules. Astrophys. J. Supp. Series 259, 30 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cernicharo, J. et al. Pure hydrocarbon cycles in TMC-1: discovery of ethynyl cyclopropenylidene, cyclopentadiene, and indene. Astron. Astrophys. 649, L15 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wenzel, G. et al. Discovery of the seven-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon cyanocoronene (C24H11CN) in GOTHAM observations of TMC-1. Astrophys. J. Lett. 984, L36 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Fuentetaja, R. et al. Discovery of 1H-cyclopent[cd]indene (c-C11H8) in TMC-1 with the QUIJOTE line survey: a new three-ringed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. Astron. Astrophys. 706, L10 (2026).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Belloche, A. et al. Re-exploring molecular complexity with ALMA (ReMoCA): interstellar detection of urea. Astron. Astrophys. 628, A10 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Jiménez-Serra, I. et al. Toward the RNA-world in the interstellar medium—detection of urea and search of 2-amino-oxazole and simple sugars. Astrobiology 20, 1048–1066 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rivilla, V. M. et al. Prebiotic precursors of the primordial RNA world in space: detection of NH2OH. Astrophys. J. Lett. 899, L28 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rivilla, V. M. et al. Discovery in space of ethanolamine, the simplest phospholipid head group. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2101314118 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rivilla, V. M. et al. Precursors of the RNA world in space: detection of (Z)-1,2-ethenediol in the interstellar medium, a key intermediate in sugar formation. Astrophys. J. Lett. 929, L11 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ruiz-Mirazo, K., Briones, C. & de la Escosura, A. Prebiotic systems chemistry: new perspectives for the origins of life. Chem. Rev. 114, 285–366 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Becker, S. et al. Unified prebiotically plausible synthesis of pyrimidine and purine rna ribonucleotides. Science 366, 76–82 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Menor Salván, C. et al. Prebiotic origin of pre-RNA building blocks in a urea “warm little pond” scenario. ChemBioChem 21, 3504–3510 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Fiore, M. et al. Synthesis of phospholipids under plausible prebiotic conditions and analogies with phospholipid biochemistry for origin of life studies. Astrobiology 22, 598–627 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Powner, M., Gerland, B. & Sutherland, J. Synthesis of activated pyrimidine ribonucleotides in prebiotically plausible conditions. Nature 459, 239–242 (2009).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Patel, B. H., Percivalle, C., Ritson, D. J., Duffy, C. D. & Sutherland, J. D. Common origins of RNA, protein and lipid precursors in a cyanosulfidic protometabolism. Nat. Chem. 7, 301–307 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Mizuno, T. & Weiss, A. H. in Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry (eds Tipson, R. S. & Horton, D.) Vol. 29, 173–227 (Academic Press, 1974).

Kopetzki, D. & Antonietti, M. Hydrothermal formose reaction. New J. Chem. 35, 1787–1794 (2011).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Delidovich, I. V., Simonov, A. N., Taran, O. P. & Parmon, V. N. Catalytic formation of monosaccharides: from the formose reaction towards selective synthesis. ChemSusChem 7, 1833–1846 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Haas, M., Lamour, S., Christ, S. B. & Trapp, O. Mineral-mediated carbohydrate synthesis by mechanical forces in a primordial geochemical setting. Commun. Chem. 3, 140 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Furukawa, Y. et al. Extraterrestrial ribose and other sugars in primitive meteorites. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 24440–24445 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Furukawa, Y. et al. Bio-essential sugars in samples from asteroid Bennu. Nat. Geosci. 19, 19–24 (2026).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hollis, J. M., Lovas, F. J. & Jewell, P. R. Interstellar glycolaldehyde: the first sugar. Astrophys. J. Lett. 540, L107–L110 (2000).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Beltrán, M. T., Codella, C., Viti, S., Neri, R. & Cesaroni, R. First detection of glycolaldehyde outside the Galactic Center. Astrophys. J. Lett. 690, L93–L96 (2009).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jørgensen, J. K. et al. Detection of the simplest sugar, glycolaldehyde, in a solar-type protostar with alma. Astrophys. J. Lett. 757, L4 (2012).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Porterfield, J. P. et al. Pyrolysis of the simplest carbohydrate, glycolaldehyde (CHO-CH2OH), and glyoxal in a heated microreactor. J. Phys. Chem. A 120, 2161–2172 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cocinero, E. J. et al. Ribose found in the gas phase. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51, 3119–3124 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Peña, I. et al. Six pyranoside forms of free 2-deoxy-d-ribose. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52, 11840–11845 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Insausti, A. et al. Laboratory observation of, astrochemical search for, and structure of elusive erythrulose in the interstellar medium. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 12, 1352–1359 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hollis, J. M., Jewell, P. R., Lovas, F. J. & Remijan, A. Green Bank telescope observations of interstellar glycolaldehyde: low-temperature sugar. Astrophys. J. Lett. 613, L45–L48 (2004).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Widicus Weaver, S. L. & Blake, G. A. 1,3-Dihydroxyacetone in Sagittarius B2(N-LMH): the first interstellar ketose. Astrophys. J. Lett. 624, L33–L36 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Apponi, A. J. et al. Investigating the limits of chemical complexity in Sagittarius B2(N): a rigorous attempt to confirm 1,3-dihydroxyacetone. Astrophys. J. Lett. 643, L29–L32 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

GRAVITY Collaboration. A geometric distance measurement to the Galactic Center black hole with 0.3% uncertainty. Astron. Astrophys. 625, L10 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Requena-Torres, M. A. et al. Organic molecules in the Galactic Center. Hot core chemistry without hot cores. Astron. Astrophys. 455, 971–985 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zeng, S. et al. Complex organic molecules in the Galactic Centre: the N-bearing family. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 478, 2962–2975 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jiménez-Serra, I. et al. Precursors of fatty alcohols in the ISM: discovery of n-propanol. Astron. Astrophys. 663, A181 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Sanz-Novo, M. et al. Discovery of the elusive carbonic acid (HOCOOH) in space. Astrophys. J. 954, 3 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zeng, S. et al. Cloud–cloud collision as drivers of the chemical complexity in Galactic Centre molecular clouds. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 497, 4896–4909 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Araki, M. et al. A detection of sulfur-bearing cyclic hydrocarbons in space. Nat. Astron. 10, 401A (2026).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Martín, S., Requena-Torres, M. A., Martín-Pintado, J. & Mauersberger, R. Tracing shocks and photodissociation in the Galactic Center region. Astrophys. J. 678, 245–254 (2008).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rodríguez-Almeida, L. F. et al. Thiols in the interstellar medium: first detection of HC(O)SH and confirmation of C2H5SH. Astrophys. J. Lett. 912, L11 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rodríguez-Almeida, L. F. et al. First detection of C2H5NCO in the ISM and search of other isocyanates towards the G+0.693–0.027 molecular cloud. Astron. Astrophys. 654, L1 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sanz-Novo, M. et al. Toward the limits of complexity of interstellar chemistry: rotational spectroscopy and astronomical search for n- and i-butanal. Astron. Astrophys. 666, A114 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Snyder, L. E. et al. A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine. Astrophys. J. 619, 914–930 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Halfen, D. T., Apponi, A. J., Woolf, N., Polt, R. & Ziurys, L. M. A systematic study of glycolaldehyde in Sagittarius B2(N) at 2 and 3 mm: criteria for detecting large interstellar molecules. Astrophys. J. 639, 237–245 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Colzi, L. et al. Deuterium fractionation as a multiphase component tracer in the Galactic Center. Astrophys. J. Lett. 926, L22 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, C. et al. Ionizing radiation exposure on Arrokoth shapes a sugar world. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2320215121 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Joshi, P. R. & Lee, Y.-P. Identification of HOC•HC(O)H, HOCH2C•O, and HOCH2CH2O• intermediates in the reaction of H + glycolaldehyde in solid para-hydrogen and its implication to the interstellar formation of complex sugars. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 146, 23306–23320 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, J., Marks, J. H., Fortenberry, R. C. & Kaiser, R. I. Interstellar formation of glyceric acid [HOCH2CH(OH)COOH]—the simplest sugar acid. Sci. Adv. 10, eadl3236 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rodríguez-Fernández, N. J., Martín-Pintado, J., Fuente, A. & Wilson, T. L. ISO observations of the Galactic Center interstellar medium. Neutral gas and dust. Astron. Astrophys. 427, 217–229 (2004).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Etxaluze, M. et al. Herschel observations of the Sagittarius B2 cores: hydrides, warm CO, and cold dust. Astron. Astrophys. 556, A137 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cuppen, H. & Herbst, E. Simulation of the formation and morphology of ice mantles on interstellar grains. Astrophys. J. 668, 294–309 (2007).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cuppen, H., van Dishoeck, E. F., Herbst, E. & Tielens, A. Microscopic simulation of methanol and formaldehyde ice formation in cold dense cores. Astron. Astrophys. 508, 275–287 (2009).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lamberts, T., de Vries, X. & Cuppen, H. The formation of ice mantles on interstellar grains revisited—the effect of exothermicity. Faraday Discuss. 168, 327–347 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Simons, M. A. J., Lamberts, T. & Cuppen, H. M. Formation of COMs through CO hydrogenation on interstellar grains. Astron. Astrophys. 634, A52 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Goto, M. et al. Infrared H3+ and CO studies of the galactic core: GCIRS 3 and GCIRS 1W. Astrophys. J. 786, 96 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Le Petit, F. et al. Physical conditions in the central molecular zone inferred by \({{\rm{H}}}_{3}^{+}\). Astron. Astrophys. 585, A105 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Martín-Pintado, J., de Vicente, P., Fuente, A. & Planesas, P. SiO emission from the Galactic Center molecular clouds. Astrophys. J. Lett. 482, L45–L48 (1997).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jiménez-Serra, I., Caselli, P., Martín-Pintado, J. & Hartquist, T. W. Parametrization of C-shocks. Evolution of the sputtering of grains. Astron. Astrophys. 482, 549–559 (2008).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rivilla, V. M. et al. Ionize hard: interstellar PO+ detection. Front. Astron. Space Sci. 9, 829288 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sanz-Novo, M. et al. Interstellar detection of O-protonated carbonyl sulfide, HOCS+. Astrophys. J. 965, 149 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ginsburg, A. et al. JWST reveals widespread CO ice and gas absorption in the Galactic Center cloud G0.253+0.016. Astrophys. J. 959, 36 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lema-Saavedra, A., Fernández-Ramos, A. & Martínez-Núñez, E. Computational insights into the chemical reaction networks of C3H6O3, C3H7O3 and C2H5O2: implications for the interstellar medium. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 27, 22424–22433 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Fernández-Ruz, M., Jiménez-Serra, I. & Aguirre, J. A theoretical approach to the complex chemical evolution of phosphorus in the interstellar medium. Astrophys. J. 956, 47 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Fried, Z. T. P. et al. Rotational spectrum and first interstellar detection of 2-methoxyethanol using ALMA observations of NGC 6334I. Astrophys. J. Lett. 965, L23 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

McGuire, B. A. et al. Discovery of the interstellar chiral molecule propylene oxide (CH3CHCH2O). Science 352, 1449–1452 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Islam, S., Bučar, D.-K. & Powner, M. W. Prebiotic selection and assembly of proteinogenic amino acids and natural nucleotides from complex mixtures. Nat. Chem. 9, 584–589 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Nagorski, R. W. & Richard, J. P. Mechanistic imperatives for aldose–ketose isomerization in water: specific, general base- and metal ion-catalyzed isomerization of glyceraldehyde with proton and hydride transfer. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 794–802 (2001).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Colville, B. W. F. & Powner, M. W. Selective prebiotic synthesis of α-threofuranosyl cytidine by photochemical anomerization. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60, 10526–10530 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Altwegg, K., Balsiger, H. & Fuselier, S. A. Cometary chemistry and the origin of icy Solar System bodies: the view after Rosetta. Annual Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 57, 113–155 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ligterink, N. F. W. et al. The rapid formation of macromolecules in irradiated ice of protoplanetary disk dust traps. Nat. Astron. 8, 1257–1263 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cronin, J. R. & Pizzarello, S. Enantiomeric excesses in meteoritic amino acids. Science 275, 951–955 (1997).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cooper, G. & Rios, A. C. Enantiomer excesses of rare and common sugar derivatives in carbonaceous meteorites. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113, E3322–E3331 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ribó, J. M. & Hochberg, D. Chemical basis of biological homochirality during the abiotic evolution stages on Earth. Symmetry 11, 814 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Whittet, D. C. B. & Duley, W. W. Carbon monoxide frosts in the interstellar medium. Astron. Astrophys. Rev. 2, 167–189 (1991).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Piani, L. et al. Earth’s water may have been inherited from material similar to enstatite chondrite meteorites. Science 369, 1110–1113 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Chyba, C. & Sagan, C. Endogenous production, exogenous delivery and impact-shock synthesis of organic molecules: an inventory for the origins of life. Nature 355, 125–132 (1992).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Koeberl, C. Impact processes on the early Earth. Elements 2, 211–216 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cartwright, J., Hodges, K. & Wadhwa, M. Evidence against a late heavy bombardment event on vesta. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 590, 117576 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wogan, N. F., Catling, D. C. & Zahnle, K. J. Timing and likelihood of the origin of life derived from post-impact highly reducing atmospheres. Astrobiology 24, 881–891 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

McCaffrey, V. P., Zellner, N. E. B., Waun, C. M., Bennett, E. R. & Earl, E. K. Reactivity and survivability of glycolaldehyde in simulated meteorite impact experiments. Origins Life Evol. Biosphere 44, 29–42 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zellner, N. E., McCaffrey, V. P. & Butler, J. H. Cometary glycolaldehyde as a source of pre-rna molecules. Astrobiology 20, 1377–1388 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yu, H., Zhang, S. & Chaput, J. Darwinian evolution of an alternative genetic system provides support for TNA as an RNA progenitor. Nat. Chem. 4, 183–187 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Tercero, F. et al. Yebes 40 m radio telescope and the broad band Nanocosmos receivers at 7 mm and 3 mm for line surveys. Astron. Astrophys. 645, A37 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Megías, A. et al. The complex organic molecular content in the L1517B starless core. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 519, 1601–1617 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Martín, S. et al. Spectral Line Identification and Modelling (SLIM) in the MAdrid Data CUBe Analysis (MADCUBA) package. Interactive software for data cube analysis. Astron. Astrophys. 631, A159 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lattanzi, V. et al. Advancing spectroscopic understanding of HOCS+: laboratory investigations and astronomical implications. Astron. Astrophys. 689, A260 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rey-Montejo, M. et al. Discovery of MgS and NaS in the interstellar medium and tentative detection of CaO. Astrophys. J. 975, 174 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Massalkhi, S. et al. The first detection of SiC2 in the interstellar medium. Astron. Astrophys. 678, A45 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Li, J. et al. Widespread presence of glycolaldehyde and ethylene glycol around Sagittarius B2. Astrophys. J. 849, 115 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Frisch, M. J. et al. Gaussian 16 Revision A.03 (Gaussian, 2016).

Zhao, Y. & Truhlar, D. G. Design of density functionals that are broadly accurate for thermochemistry, thermochemical kinetics, and nonbonded interactions. J. Phys. Chem. A 109, 5656–5667 (2005).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Stewart, J. J. P. Optimization of parameters for semiempirical methods VI: more modifications to the NDDO approximations and re-optimization of parameters. J. Mol. Model. 19, 1–32 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rappe, A. K., Casewit, C. J., Colwell, K. S., Goddard, W. A. I. & Skiff, W. M. UFF, a full periodic table force field for molecular mechanics and molecular dynamics simulations. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114, 10024–10035 (1992).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Weigend, F. & Ahlrichs, R. Balanced basis sets of split valence, triple zeta valence and quadruple zeta valence quality for H to Rn: design and assessment of accuracy. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 7, 3297–3305 (2005).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Roos, B. O., Taylor, P. R. & Sigbahn, P. E. A complete active space SCF method (CASSCF) using a density matrix formulated super-CI approach. Chem. Phys. 48, 157–173 (1980).

Article 
MathSciNet 

Google Scholar
 

Neese, F., Wennmohs, F., Becker, U. & Riplinger, C. The ORCA quantum chemistry program package. JChPh 152, 224108 (2020).

ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ferro-Costas, D., Truhlar, D. G. & Fernández-Ramos, A. Pilgrim-version 2020.2 (University of Minneapolis, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 2020).

Eckart, C. The penetration of a potential barrier by electrons. PhRv 35, 1303 (1930).

ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Marcus, R. A. Chemical and electrochemical electron-transfer theory. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 15, 155–196 (1964).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Marcus, R. & Sutin, N. Electron transfers in chemistry and biology. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Rev. Bioenerg. 811, 265–322 (1985).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Ioppolo, S. et al. A non-energetic mechanism for glycine formation in the interstellar medium. Nat. Astron. 5, 197–205 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Álvarez-Barcia, S., Russ, P., Kästner, J. & Lamberts, T. Hydrogen transfer reactions of interstellar complex organic molecules. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 479, 2007 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Holdship, J., Viti, S., Jiménez-Serra, I., Makrymallis, A. & Priestley, F. UCLCHEM: a gas-grain chemical code for clouds, cores, and C-shocks. Astron. J. 154, 38 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jiménez-Serra, I. et al. Detection of a four-carbon sugar in interstellar space. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20081358 (2026).