Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2024 (International Energy Agency, 2024).

Bhattacharyya, S. et al. Graphite: the new critical mineral. Nat. Rev. Mater. 11, 65–78 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yadav, R., Sharma, A. K. & Sharma, S. Advance development in natural graphite material and its applications: a review. Min. Metall. Explor. 42, 361–385 (2025).


Google Scholar
 

Murugan, P., Nagarajan, R. D., Shetty, B. H., Govindasamy, M. & Sundramoorthy, A. K. Recent trends in the applications of thermally expanded graphite for energy storage and sensors — a review. Nanoscale Adv. 3, 6294–6309 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Supply Chain Risks and Industrial Competitiveness — Energy Technology Perspectives 2026 https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2026/supply-chain-risks-and-industrial-competitiveness (International Energy Agency, 2026).

Chung, J., Neustaedter, E. R., Moon, J. W., Xun, S. & Textoris, S. D. Production of Mineral Commodities and Geospatial Map of the Mineral Industries and Related Infrastructure of China. Open-File Report 2026-1018 https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20261018 (USGS Mineral Resources Program, 2026).

Meidan, M. et al. Responding to the China challenge: diversification and de-risking in new energy supply chains. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/OEF-142.pdf (2024).

Engels, P. et al. Life cycle assessment of natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on industrial primary data. J. Clean. Prod. 336, 130474 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Deng, J. et al. Efficient purification of graphite industry wastewater by a combined neutralization–coagulation–flocculation process strategy: performance of flocculant combinations and defluoridation mechanism. Sep. Purif. Technol. 326, 124771 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Surovtseva, D., Crossin, E., Pell, R. & Stamford, L. Toward a life cycle inventory for graphite production. J. Ind. Ecol. 26, 964–979 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Carrère, T., Khalid, U., Baumann, M., Bouzidi, M. & Allard, B. Carbon footprint assessment of manufacturing of synthetic graphite battery anode material for electric mobility applications. J. Energy Storage 94, 112356 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Pandey, R., Gracida-Alvarez, U. R., Iyer, R. K. & Kelly, J. C. Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of synthetic graphite anode production in the United States. Environ. Sci. Adv. 4, 2055–2068 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Xiao, J. et al. From mining to manufacturing: scientific challenges and opportunities behind battery production. Chem. Rev. 125, 6397–6431 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, J., Liang, C. & Dunn, J. B. Graphite flows in the U.S.: insights into a key ingredient of energy transition. Environ. Sci. Technol. 57, 3402–3414 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Xie, H. et al. A stable atmospheric-pressure plasma for extreme-temperature synthesis. Nature 623, 964–971 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Jia, C. et al. Graphene environmental footprint greatly reduced when derived from biomass waste via flash Joule heating. One Earth 5, 1394–1403 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Li, F. et al. Ultrafast synthesis of battery grade graphite enabled by a multi-physics field carbonization. Chem. Eng. J. 461, 142128 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Weldekidan, H., Mohanty, A. K. & Misra, M. Upcycling of plastic wastes and biomass for sustainable graphitic carbon production: a critical review. ACS Environ. Au 2, 510–522 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Luo, F., Lyu, T., Wang, D. & Zheng, Z. A review on green and sustainable carbon anodes for lithium ion batteries: utilization of green carbon resources and recycling waste graphite. Green. Chem. 25, 8950–8969 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kosenko, A., Pushnitsa, K., Pavlovskii, A. A., Novikov, P. & Popovich, A. A. The review of existing strategies of end-of-life graphite anode processing using 3Rs approach: recovery, recycle, reuse. Batteries 9, 579 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Tian, H., Graczyk-Zajac, M., Kessler, A., Weidenkaff, A. & Riedel, R. Recycling and reusing of graphite from retired lithium-ion batteries: a review. Adv. Mater. 36, 2308494 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Islam, M. S., Kushwaha, A. K. & Misra, M. Review on the recycling of anode graphite from waste lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 26, 3341–3369 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Abhilash et al. Recycling strategies for renewable graphite and other carbon nanomaterials from used batteries: a review. J. Clean. Prod. 493, 144871 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Robinson, B., Yang, J., Tan, R., Alekseev, S. & Low, C. T. J. Rethinking the roles of graphite and graphene in lithium-ion batteries from environmental and industrial perspectives. Carbon Energy 8, e70099 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhao, W., Zhao, C., Wu, H., Li, L. & Zhang, C. Progress, challenge and perspective of graphite-based anode materials for lithium batteries: a review. J. Energy Storage 81, 110409 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, Y., Shi, H. & Wu, Z.-S. Recent status, key strategies and challenging perspectives of fast-charging graphite anodes for lithium-ion batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 16, 4834–4871 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Cherakkara, A., Zafar, S., Izwan Misnon, I., Yang, C.-C. & Jose, R. Graphite from biomass: a review on synthetic feasibility. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 145, 75–98 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Yap, Y. W. et al. Recent advances in synthesis of graphite from agricultural bio-waste material: a review. Materials 16, 3601 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, J. et al. Critical strategies for recycling process of graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 816, 151621 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Choi, J. et al. Eco-friendly recycling of coke waste: transforming steel manufacturing waste into high-purity graphite for lithium-ion batteries. Carbon 236, 120119 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Abrego-Martinez, J. C., Wang, Y., Vanpeene, V. & Roué, L. From waste graphite fines to revalorized anode material for Li-ion batteries. Carbon 209, 118004 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Hanssen, S. V. et al. Biomass residues as twenty-first century bioenergy feedstock — a comparison of eight integrated assessment models. Clim. Change 163, 1569–1586 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Daioglou, V., Stehfest, E., Wicke, B., Faaij, A. & van Vuuren, D. P. Projections of the availability and cost of residues from agriculture and forestry. GCB Bioenergy 8, 456–470 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Weldesemayat Sileshi, G., Barrios, E., Lehmann, J. & Tubiello, F. N. An organic matter database (OMD): consolidating global residue data from agriculture, fisheries, forestry and related industries. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 17, 369–391 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Blanco-Canqui, H. & Lal, R. Crop residue removal impacts on soil productivity and environmental quality. Crit. Rev. Plant. Sci. 28, 139–163 (2009).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Residue and tillage management, reduced till. US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/Residue_And_Tillage_Management_Reduced_Till_345_CPS.pdf (2016).

Johnson, J. M. F. et al. Crop residue mass needed to maintain soil organic carbon levels: can it be determined? BioEnergy Res. 7, 481–490 (2014).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Brhel, J., Schmer, M., & Wortmann, C. Crop residue removal: impacts on yield. Cropwatch https://cropwatch.unl.edu/2017/residue-removal-impacts-yield/ (2017).

Martinkus, N., Latta, G., Brandt, K. & Wolcott, M. A multi-criteria decision analysis approach to facility siting in a wood-based depot-and-biorefinery supply chain model. Front. Energy Res. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2018.00124 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Jayarathna, L., Kent, G., O’Hara, I. & Hobson, P. Geographical information system based fuzzy multi criteria analysis for sustainability assessment of biomass energy plant siting: a case study in Queensland, Australia. Land Use Policy 114, 105986 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhao, G. et al. Mapping out the regional low-carbon and economic biomass supply chain by aligning geographic information systems and life cycle assessment models. Appl. Energy 369, 123599 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Du, H. et al. Lignocellulosic films: preparation, properties, and applications. Chem. Rev. 125, 11666–11814 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Inflation Reduction Act 2022: sec. 13502 Advanced manufacturing production credit – policies. International Energy Agency https://www.iea.org/policies/16282-inflation-reduction-act-2022-sec-13502-advanced-manufacturing-production-credit.

Page-Dumroese, D. S. et al. Forest biomass policies and regulations in the United States of America. Forests 13, 1415 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rusen, M., Reichert, S. & Elisei, P. Wood-based policies as a driver for the climate transition. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 1402, 012054 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

United States Congress. Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401–7671q (1970).

Fact sheet on clean cellulosic biomass and non-hazardous secondary materials determinations. United States Environmental Protection Agency https://www.epa.gov/rcra/fact-sheet-clean-cellulosic-biomass-and-non-hazardous-secondary-materials-determinations (2024).

Global Plastics Outlook: Policy Scenarios to 2060 https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/global-plastics-outlook_aa1edf33-en.html (OECD, 2022).

Wiesinger, H., Wang, Z. & Hellweg, S. Deep dive into plastic monomers, additives, and processing aids. Environ. Sci. Technol. 55, 9339–9351 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Ko, S., Kwon, Y. J., Lee, J. U. & Jeon, Y.-P. Preparation of synthetic graphite from waste PET plastic. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 83, 449–458 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Ehi-Eromosele, C. O. et al. Ionothermal synthesis of activated carbon from waste PET bottles as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 12, 34670–34684 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chowdhury, Z., Barma, S., Sen, D. & Sarkar, A. R. PET pyrolysis: kinetics of a-graphite. Environ. Qual. Manag. 33, 843–854 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Li, M. et al. Exploring pyrolysis mechanism of waste PET in different degrees of polymerization to regulate the pyrolysis products. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 233, 111175 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Guo, Z., Wu, J. & Wang, J. Chemical degradation and recycling of polyethylene terephthalate (PET): a review. RSC Sustain. 3, 2111–2133 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Jeong, W. et al. Upcycling waste low-density polyethylene into highly crystalline graphite. Adv. Sci. 12, 2416978 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Choi, D., Jang, D., Joh, H.-I., Reichmanis, E. & Lee, S. High performance graphitic carbon from waste polyethylene: thermal oxidation as a stabilization pathway revisited. Chem. Mater. 29, 9518–9527 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gharpure, A., Kowalik, M., Vander Wal, R. L. & van Duin, A. C. T. Upcycling plastic waste into graphite using graphenic additives for energy storage: yield, graphitic quality, and interaction mechanisms via experimentation and molecular dynamics. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 12, 4565–4575 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Ren, S. et al. Structure-oriented conversions of plastics to carbon nanomaterials. Carbon Res. 1, 15 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gong, J., Chen, X. & Tang, T. Recent progress in controlled carbonization of (waste) polymers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 94, 1–32 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhou, X. et al. Upcycling of real-world HDPE plastic wastes into high-purity methane and hierarchical porous carbon materials: influence of plastics additives. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 11, 109327 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Blanchard, R. & Mekonnen, T. H. Valorization of plastic waste via chemical activation and carbonization into activated carbon for functional material applications. RSC Appl. Polym. 2, 557–582 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Sundarakannan, R. et al. Effect of polyethylene terephthalate char on impact and erosion properties of polyester matrix composites. Adv. Mater. Process. Technol. 8, 4122–4135 (2022).


Google Scholar
 

Smith, R. L., Takkellapati, S. & Riegerix, R. C. Recycling of plastics in the United States: plastic material flows and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling processes. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 10, 2084–2096 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, Z., Fang, E., Chen, L., Fan, Z. & Song, S. Recent developments in recycling technologies for polymeric plastics. Polym. Chem. 17, 601–632 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, S. & Hu, Y. H. Advancements and future directions in waste plastics recycling: from mechanical methods to innovative chemical processes. Chem. Eng. J. 493, 152727 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Klotz, M., Haupt, M. & Hellweg, S. Potentials and limits of mechanical plastic recycling. J. Ind. Ecol. 27, 1043–1059 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chaudhari, U. S. et al. Systems analysis approach to polyethylene terephthalate and olefin plastics supply chains in the circular economy: a review of data sets and models. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 7403–7421 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lange, J.-P. Managing plastic waste — sorting, recycling, disposal, and product redesign. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 15722–15738 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chaudhari, U. S. et al. Systems analysis and optimization of circular PET packaging supply chains in the United States: environmental and socioeconomic impacts. J. Adv. Manuf. Process. 7, e70008 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Tumu, K., Vorst, K. & Curtzwiler, G. Global plastic waste recycling and extended producer responsibility laws. J. Environ. Manag. 348, 119242 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Erickson, E. Shaping a federal strategy for chemical recycling: moving toward sensible applications of emerging technologies in US plastic waste management. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy 43, e14333 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

European Parliament and Council of the European Union. Regulation (EU) 2025/40 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 December 2024 on packaging and packaging waste, amending Regulation (EU) 2019/1020 and Directive (EU) 2019/904, and repealing Directive 94/62/EC. Official Journal of the European Union L 2025/40 http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2025/40/oj (2025).

Implementing decision on the calculation, verification and reporting of data on recycled plastic content in single-use plastic beverage bottles. European Commission, Directorate-General for Environment https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/implementing-decision-calculation-verification-and-reporting-data-recycled-plastic-content-single_en (2026).

Stathatou, P. M. et al. Enabling informed decisions on pyrolysis: a key to turn the tide on plastics recycling. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 13, 8496–8507 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Johansson, N. Recycling warning! Reconfiguring the toxic politics of a circular economy. Sustain. Sci. 18, 1043–1048 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Caro, D. et al. Towards a better definition and calculation of recycling: proposals for calculating recycling yields in multi output processes and recycling of biodegradable waste, and a quality framework for recycling. Publications Office of the European Union https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC131531 (2023).

Garcia-Gutierrez, P. et al. Environmental and economic assessment of plastic waste recycling: a comparison of mechanical, physical, chemical recycling and energy recovery of plastic waste. Publications Office of the European Union https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC132067 (2023).

Gendell, A. & Lahme, V. Feedstock Quality Guidelines for Pyrolysis of Plastic Waste https://www.endplasticwaste.org/insights/reports/feedstock-for-pyrolysis (Alliance to End Plastic Waste, 2022).

Gonzales-Calienes, G., Kannangara, M. & Bensebaa, F. Economic and environmental viability of lithium-ion battery recycling — case study in two Canadian regions with different energy mixes. Batteries 9, 375 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Bunke, S. et al. Life cycle comparison of battery recycling and conventional material refining. Electrochem. Soc. Meet. Abstr. MA2022-01, 586 https://doi.org/10.1149/MA2022-015586mtgabs (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Expected battery recycling capacity by region based on current announcements, 2023–2030. International Energy Agency https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/expected-battery-recycling-capacity-by-region-based-on-current-announcements-2023-2030 (2024).

Shafique, M., Rafiq, M., Azam, A. & Luo, X. Material flow analysis for end-of-life lithium-ion batteries from battery electric vehicles in the USA and China. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 178, 106061 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Electric vehicle battery sales share by chemistry and region, 2022–2024. International Energy Agency https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/electric-vehicle-battery-sales-share-by-chemistry-and-region-2022-2024 (2025).

Liu, C., Lin, J., Cao, H., Zhang, Y. & Sun, Z. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries in view of lithium recovery: a critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 228, 801–813 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gao, Y. et al. Opportunity and challenges in recovering and functionalizing anode graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries: a review. Environ. Res. 247, 118216 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wei, X. et al. Recovery of graphite from industrial lithium-ion battery black mass. RSC Sustain. 3, 264–274 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wei, W., Liu, W. & Zhou, J. Recovery and repurposing of end-of-life graphitic anodes for green lithium-ion batteries. EcoEnergy https://doi.org/10.1002/ece2.70103 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rieger, J. et al. Graphite separation from lithium-ion battery black mass using froth flotation and quality evaluation for reuse as a secondary raw material including non-battery applications. Recycling 10, 75 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Council of the European Communities. Council Directive 91/157/EEC of 18 March 1991 on batteries and accumulators containing certain dangerous substances. Off. J. Eur. Commun. L78, 38–41 (1991).

Su, D., Mei, Y., Liu, T. & Amine, K. Global regulations for sustainable battery recycling: challenges and opportunities. Sustainability 17, 3045 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing directive 91/157/EEC. European Parliament and Council of the European Union https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ca35540b-bc02-4251-9a88-016b22fdb430/language-en (2006).

Directive 2013/56/EU of 20 November 2013 amending directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators as regards the placing on the market of portable batteries and accumulators containing cadmium intended for use in cordless power tools, and of button cells with low mercury content, and repealing commission decision 2009/603/EC. European Parliament and Council of the European Union https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2013/56/oj/eng (2013).

EU sustainable batteries regulation – policies. International Energy Agency https://www.iea.org/policies/16763-eu-sustainable-batteries-regulation (2024).

Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries. European Parliament and Council of the European Union https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1542/oj/eng (2023).

China to strengthen recycling management of used power batteries from NEVs. The State Council of the People’s Republic of China https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202601/16/content_WS6969df0cc6d00ca5f9a089c0.html (2026).

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, India. Battery waste management rules, 2022. International Energy Agency https://www.iea.org/policies/25166-battery-waste-management-rules-2022 (2022).

Shah, K. & Kothari, V. Your EV battery expires, who’s responsible for it? World Resources Institute https://www.wri.org/insights/ev-battery-waste-extended-producer-responsibility (2025).

Sarode, S. B. & Elkind, E. A policy blueprint for ensuring sustainable battery supply chains. UC Berkely Center for Law, Energy and the Environment https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/A-Blueprint-Policy-for-Ensuring-Sustainable-Battery-Supply-Chains-WEB.pdf (2025).

Ali, A. et al. Sustainable recycling of end-of-life electric vehicle batteries: EV battery recycling frameworks in China and the USA. Recycling 10, 68 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

King, A. S.3356 — Battery and critical mineral recycling act of 2020. United States Senate https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/3356 (2020).

DeFazio, P. A. H.R.3684 — Infrastructure investment and jobs act. United States Statutes at Large Public Law 117-58 https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3684/text (2021).

Inflation Reduction Act of 2022. United States Statutes at Large Public Law 117-169 https://www.congress.gov/117/plaws/publ169/PLAW-117publ169.pdf (2022).

Electric and hybrid vehicle battery management act. Public Law 2023, c.222 (S3723 3R) New Jersey Legislature https://pub.njleg.state.nj.us/Bills/2022/PL23/222_.HTM (2024).

Batteries. Product Stewardship Institute https://productstewardship.us/products/batteries/ (2026).

Smith, G. How innovation will jumpstart lithium battery recycling. World Economic Forum https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/06/jumpstarting-lithium-battery-recycling-investing-innovation/ (2024).

Kamath, D. et al. Biorefinery siting and sizing to achieve the US billion-ton bioeconomy vision: a case study using a gasification–Fischer–Tropsch process. Biofuels Bioprod. Bioref. 20, 1653–1666 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Woodley, L. et al. Climate impacts of critical mineral supply chain bottlenecks for electric vehicle deployment. Nat. Commun. 15, 6813 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chenitz, R., Pajootan, E. & Mokrini, A. Future of battery grade graphite recycling from spent batteries. ACS Sustain. Resour. Manag. 2, 1337–1339 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Shi, Z. et al. Establishment of green graphite industry: graphite from biomass and its various applications. SusMat 3, 402–415 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lower, L. et al. Catalytic graphitization of biocarbon for lithium-ion anodes: a minireview. ChemSusChem 16, e202300729 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Shi, Z. et al. Catalytic graphitization of engineered pyrolysis bio-oil for sustainable graphite and hydrogen co-production. Renew. Energy 256, 124149 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dey, S. C. et al. Catalytic graphitization of pyrolysis oil for anode application in lithium-ion batteries. Green Chem. 26, 8840–8853 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gulas, M. et al. High-purity biomass-derived synthetic graphite: catalyst-free industrial synthesis and applications. ACS Omega 11, 9435–9450 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Mennani, M. et al. Probing the evolution in catalytic graphitization of biomass-based materials for enduring energetic applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 12, 6797–6825 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gomez-Martin, A., Schnepp, Z. & Ramirez-Rico, J. Structural evolution in iron-catalyzed graphitization of hard carbons. Chem. Mater. 33, 3087–3097 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Krishnan, S. G. et al. Recent developments on multi- versus single-metallic catalytic graphitisation of biocarbon: a review. Fuel 396, 135330 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Xia, S. et al. Fe–Co based synergistic catalytic graphitization of biomass: influence of the catalyst type and the pyrolytic temperature. Energy 239, 122262 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Shi, Z. et al. Bio-based anode material production for lithium-ion batteries through catalytic graphitization of biochar: the deployment of hybrid catalysts. Sci. Rep. 14, 3966 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Thompson, E., Danks, A. E., Bourgeois, L. & Schnepp, Z. Iron-catalyzed graphitization of biomass. Green Chem. 17, 551–556 (2015).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gorman, S. et al. US graphite sourcing for electric vehicle battery applications. J. Ind. Ecol. 29, 2162–2181 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gonzalez-Aguirre, J. A. et al. Techno-economic analysis of recycling strategies for catalyst and acid during catalytic graphitization. Energy Storage Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2026.105414 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Dey, S. C. et al. From pyrolysis oil to advanced biographite anode: unravelling biocoke structural evolution and delayed coking effects. Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 7, e70168 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Pusarapu, V., Narayana Sarma, R., Ochonma, P. & Gadikota, G. Sustainable co-production of porous graphitic carbon and synthesis gas from biomass resources. npj Mater. Sustain. 2, 16 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Ouzilleau, P., Gheribi, A. E., Chartrand, P., Soucy, G. & Monthioux, M. Why some carbons may or may not graphitize? The point of view of thermodynamics. Carbon 149, 419–435 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dey, S. C. et al. Low-temperature processing of pyrolysis bio-oil for sustainable biographite production. Energy Fuels 39, 11372–11387 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Banek, N. A., Abele, D. T., McKenzie, K. R. Jr. & Wagner, M. J. Sustainable conversion of lignocellulose to high-purity, highly crystalline flake potato graphite. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 13199–13207 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Banek, N. A., McKenzie, K. R., Abele, D. T. & Wagner, M. J. Sustainable conversion of biomass to rationally designed lithium-ion battery graphite. Sci. Rep. 12, 8080 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, Y., Hu, Y., Zhao, X., Wang, S. & Xing, G. Comparisons of biochar properties from wood material and crop residues at different temperatures and residence times. Energy Fuels 27, 5890–5899 (2013).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Jendoubi, N. et al. Inorganics distribution in bio oils and char produced by biomass fast pyrolysis: the key role of aerosols. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 92, 59–67 (2011).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gonzalez-Aguirre, J. A. et al. Process design and techno-economic analysis for bio-based graphite and liquid hydrocarbons production from lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresour. Technol. 438, 133156 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

You, H. et al. Sustainable production of biomass-derived graphite and graphene conductive inks from biochar. Small 20, 2406669 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Sagues, W. J. et al. A simple method for producing bio-based anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Green Chem. 22, 7093–7108 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Vook, T. et al. Sustainable Li-ion anode material from Fe-catalyzed graphitization of paper waste. J. Energy Storage 73, 109242 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lower, L. et al. Sustainable graphite and jet fuel from biorefinery residue. ChemSusChem 18, e202402509 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kulkarni, S. et al. Prospective life cycle assessment of synthetic graphite manufactured via electrochemical graphitization. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 10, 13607–13618 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Mennani, M., Ait Benhamou, A., Xiu, H., Scheu, C. & Kassab, Z. Production of bioderived graphitizable materials by alternative catalytic processing: technoeconomic assessment and upscaling insights. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 13, 6946–6961 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Feng, D. et al. Study on biochar and silicon co-production technology of rice husk based on the new ammonia CO2 capture method and its comprehensive benefits. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 60, 103558 (2023).


Google Scholar
 

Gu, S., Yang, L., Liang, X. & Zhou, J. Utilizing life cycle assessment to optimize processes and identify emission reduction potential in rice husk-derived nanosilica production. Processes 13, 483 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Steven, S. et al. A simple material and energy input–output performance in evaluating silica production from conventional, fume, and biomass thermochemical conversion routes. Waste Biomass Valoriz. 15, 2705–2720 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Hawkins, T. R. et al. The role of biofuels and biomass feedstocks for decarbonizing the U.S. economy by 2050. DECARB: Decarbonizing Energy Through Collaborative Analysis of Routes and Benefits https://doi.org/10.2172/2337775 (2024).

Bhuwalka, K. et al. Securing the supply of graphite for batteries. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2503.21521 (2025).

Fit, C. G., Clauser, N. M., Felissia, F. E. & Area, M. C. Biorefinery design from agroindustrial by-products and its scaling-up analysis. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 31, 102175 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Thapaliya, B. P. et al. Low-cost transformation of biomass-derived carbon to high-performing nano-graphite via low-temperature electrochemical graphitization. ACS Appl. Mater. Interf. 13, 4393–4401 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Saxe, J. P. et al. Just or bust? Energy justice and the impacts of siting solar pyrolysis biochar production facilities. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 58, 101259 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Akhtar, A., Krepl, V. & Ivanova, T. A combined overview of combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification of biomass. Energy Fuels 32, 7294–7318 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, K.-J. et al. Synthesizing highly crystalline graphite powder from bulk polyethylene waste for lithium-ion battery anodes. ACS Sustain. Resour. Manag. 2, 146–156 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Siddique, S., Cheela, V. R. S., Tiwary, C. S. & Dubey, B. K. Environmental life cycle assessment of synthesis routes for industrial-scale graphene production from waste-based feed stocks. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 32, 10818–10835 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gracida-Alvarez, U. R., Xu, H., Benavides, P. T., Wang, M. & Hawkins, T. R. Circular economy sustainability analysis framework for plastics: application for poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET). ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 11, 514–524 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Suzuki, G. et al. Mechanical recycling of plastic waste as a point source of microplastic pollution. Environ. Pollut. 303, 119114 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Suzuki, G. et al. Global discharge of microplastics from mechanical recycling of plastic waste. Environ. Pollut. 348, 123855 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Piao, Z., Agyei Boakye, A. A. & Yao, Y. Environmental impacts of biodegradable microplastics. Nat. Chem. Eng. 1, 661–669 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Piao, Z. & Yao, Y. The role of biodegradable plastics in the global plastic future. Nat. Rev. Clean. Technol. 2, 215–230 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Usama, M. et al. Waste plastic derived activated carbon for simultaneous removal of hazardous antibiotics: multiscale modelling and life cycle analysis. Sep. Purif. Technol. 364, 132487 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Namkung, H. et al. Investigation of oil and facility characteristics of plastic waste pyrolysis for the advanced waste recycling policy. Energies 15, 4317 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Garrido, M. A., Font, R. & Conesa, J. A. Pollutant emissions during the pyrolysis and combustion of flexible polyurethane foam. Waste Manag. 52, 138–146 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Aracil, I., Font, R. & Conesa, J. A. Semivolatile and volatile compounds from the pyrolysis and combustion of polyvinyl chloride. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 74, 465–478 (2005).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Iñiguez, M. E., Conesa, J. A. & Soler, A. Effect of marine ambient in the production of pollutants from the pyrolysis and combustion of a mixture of plastic materials. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 130, 249–257 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Ma, C. et al. Recent advancements in pyrolysis of halogen-containing plastics for resource recovery and halogen upcycling: a state-of-the-art review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 58, 1423–1440 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Hernández, B., Luo, Y., Vlachos, D. & Ierapetritou, M. Techno-economic and life cycle assessment of chemical recycling and upcycling of mixed plastics waste containing poly-vinyl-chloride. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 14, 1017–1031 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Luong, D. X. et al. Gram-scale bottom-up flash graphene synthesis. Nature 577, 647–651 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Layazali, S. et al. Flash Joule heating for converting plastic waste to graphene: effects of precursor compression on yield and quality. Polymer 350, 129786 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Algozeeb, W. A. et al. Flash graphene from plastic waste. ACS Nano 14, 15595–15604 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wyss, K. M. et al. Upcycling end-of-life vehicle waste plastic into flash graphene. Commun. Eng. 1, 3 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Le, P.-A. A review of commercial plastic waste recycling into graphene materials. RSC Adv. 15, 20239–20267 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Stanford, M. G. et al. Flash graphene morphologies. ACS Nano 14, 13691–13699 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dong, S. et al. Ultra-fast, low-cost, and green regeneration of graphite anode using flash Joule heating method. EcoMat 4, e12212 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, K. N., Lee, S. M., Mishra, A. & Yeom, G. Y. Atmospheric pressure plasmas for surface modification of flexible and printed electronic devices: a review. Thin Solid Films 598, 315–334 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, G., Ma, L., Xi, X. & Nie, Z. Efficient purification and high-quality regeneration of graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries by surfactant-assisted methanesulfonic acid. Waste Manag. 178, 105–114 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Niu, B., Xiao, J. & Xu, Z. Advances and challenges in anode graphite recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries. J. Hazard. Mater. 439, 129678 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

De Vita, L. et al. A green process for effective direct recycling and reuse of graphite from end-of-life Li-ion batteries black mass. ChemSusChem 18, e202500550 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bejigo, K. S. et al. Waste to wealth: upgrading spent graphite towards defect-rich nitrogen-doped graphene for lithium storage and oxygen electrocatalysis. Carbon 238, 120261 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gao, Y. et al. Graphite recycling from the spent lithium-ion batteries by sulfuric acid curing–leaching combined with high-temperature calcination. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 9447–9455 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Ma, X., Chen, M., Chen, B., Meng, Z. & Wang, Y. High-performance graphite recovered from spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 19732–19738 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

He, Y. et al. Recovery of LiCoO2 and graphite from spent lithium-ion batteries by Fenton reagent-assisted flotation. J. Clean Prod. 143, 319–325 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Rey, I., Vallejo, C., Santiago, G., Iturrondobeitia, M. & Lizundia, E. Environmental impacts of graphite recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries based on life cycle assessment. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 9, 14488–14501 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Premathilake, D. S. et al. Comparative analysis of facile and novel graphite recovery methods from spent lithium-ion batteries: environmental and economic implications. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 13, 1737–1753 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Cheng, Q., Marchetti, B., Chen, X., Xu, S. & Zhou, X.-D. Separation, purification, regeneration and utilization of graphite recovered from spent lithium-ion batteries — a review. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 10, 107312 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, J.-R. et al. Recent developments and the future of the recycling of spent graphite for energy storage applications. N. Carbon Mater. 38, 787–803 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Li, J., Wang, G. & Xu, Z. Environmentally-friendly oxygen-free roasting/wet magnetic separation technology for in situ recycling cobalt, lithium carbonate and graphite from spent LiCoO2/graphite lithium batteries. J. Hazard. Mater. 302, 97–104 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, J. et al. Effective regeneration of anode material recycled from scrapped Li-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 390, 38–44 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, G. et al. A sustainable process for the recovery of anode and cathode materials derived from spent lithium-ion batteries. Sustainability 11, 2363 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yang, Y. et al. A process for combination of recycling lithium and regenerating graphite from spent lithium-ion battery. Waste Manag. 85, 529–537 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kadivar, S., Sharifian, S. & Vahidi, E. Natural, synthetic, or recycled? A life cycle and techno-economic analysis of battery-grade graphite production. J. Environ. Manag. 395, 127747 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, G., Jiang, T., He, Y., Wang, H. & Yuan, X. Pre-separation combined with reduction roasting for high-quality recovery of graphite and lithium from spent lithium ion batteries. Waste Manag. 187, 244–251 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Tas, G. et al. An integrated study on pyrolysis, flotation, and leaching for optimized recycling of industrial battery materials. Miner. Eng. 235, 109839 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Jegan Roy, J., Tang, E. J. J., Do, M. P., Cao, B. & Srinivasan, M. Closed-loop graphite recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries through bioleaching. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 11, 6567–6577 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, X. et al. Direct exfoliation of the anode graphite of used Li-ion batteries into few-layer graphene sheets: a green and high yield route to high-quality graphene preparation. J. Mater. Chem. A 5, 5880–5885 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Schiavi, P. G., Altimari, P., Zanoni, R. & Pagnanelli, F. Full recycling of spent lithium ion batteries with production of core-shell nanowires//exfoliated graphite asymmetric supercapacitor. J. Energy Chem. 58, 336–344 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kong, Y., Takaya, Y., Córdova-Udaeta, M. & Tokoro, C. A comprehensive approach for the recycling of anode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries: separation, lithium recovery, and graphite reutilization as environmental catalyst. Waste Manag. 188, 60–71 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, K. et al. From waste to worth: advances in anode graphite recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries. ChemSusChem 19, e202502485 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Bao, S. et al. Emerging green recycling technologies for spent lithium-ion batteries: a comprehensive review integrating and innovating traditional methods. Green Chem. 28, 3394–3431 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Pushpendra, Vollert, E., Bresser, D. & Weil, M. Assessing the critical role of graphite in the carbon footprint of lithium-ion battery production. J. Energy Storage 161, 121887 (2026).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Yudhistira, R., Khatiwada, D. & Sanchez, F. A comparative life cycle assessment of lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries for grid energy storage. J. Clean Prod. 358, 131999 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Ono, K. et al. Improvement of tensile strength and anti-oxidation property of graphite electrode for electric arc furnace through heterogenization of binder pitch. Carbon Lett. 34, 1981–1993 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Davis, C., Li, Z., Styring, P., Curry, R. & Holliman, P. J. Routes to reducing emissions from steel production. Nat. Rev. Clean. Technol. 1, 890–902 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rippy, K., Bell, R. T. & Leick, N. Chemical and electrochemical pathways to low-carbon iron and steel. npj Mater. Sustain. 2, 33 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025 — Analysis https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025 (International Energy Agency, 2025).

Manufacturing and Trade — Global EV Outlook 2026 https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2026/manufacturing-and-trade (International Energy Agency, 2026).

Sustainable and Responsible Critical Mineral Supply Chains https://www.iea.org/reports/sustainable-and-responsible-critical-mineral-supply-chains (International Energy Agency, 2023).

Özkaynak, B. & Rodríguez-Labajos, B. Mining conflicts around the world. Environmental Justice Organisations, Liabilities and Trade (EJOLT) https://pure.eur.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/47216716/metis_183590.pdf (2012).

Sovacool, B. K. et al. Sustainable minerals and metals for a low-carbon future. Science 367, 30–33 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Commission for racial justice, toxic wastes and race in the United States: a national report on the racial and socio-economic characteristics of communities with hazardous waste sites. United Church of Christ https://www.ucc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ToxicWastesRace.pdf (1987).

Siting of hazardous waste landfills and their correlation with racial and economic status of surrounding communities. United States Government Accountability Office https://www.gao.gov/products/rced-83-168 (1983).

Taylor, D. E. Toxic Communities: Environmental Racism, Industrial Pollution, and Residential Mobility (NYU Press, 2014).

Cushing, L. J., Li, S., Steiger, B. B. & Casey, J. A. Historical red-lining is associated with fossil fuel power plant siting and present-day inequalities in air pollutant emissions. Nat. Energy 8, 52–61 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Recycling of Critical Minerals – Analysis https://www.iea.org/reports/recycling-of-critical-minerals (International Energy Agency, 2024).

Liu, W. et al. Global estimation of the climate change impact of logging residue utilization for biofuels. For. Ecol. Manag. 462, 118000 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Ren, Y. et al. Dataset on the dynamic stocks and flows of 20 types of plastics in China, 1978–2022. Sci. Data 13, 64 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hendrickson, T. P. et al. Paths to circularity for plastics in the United States. One Earth 7, 520–531 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Amadei, A., Venturelli, S., & Manfredi, S. Plastics materials flows in the EU-27 and their environmental impacts: unveiling the European plastic value chain. JRC142860 Publications Office of the European Union https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/6579757 (2025).

Emami, N. et al. Plastics in the Indian economy: a comprehensive material flow analysis. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 26, 3584–3595 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Plastic Lifecycle Assessment Calculator for the Environment and Society (PLACES): Latin America and the Caribbean — methodology and results. The Circulate Initiative https://www.thecirculateinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Circulate-Initiative-PLACES-LAC-Methodology-and-Results_Oct-2025.pdf (2025).

Shafique, M., Akbar, A., Rafiq, M., Azam, A. & Luo, X. Global material flow analysis of end-of-life of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide batteries from battery electric vehicles. Waste Manag. Res. J. Sustain. Circ. Econ. 41, 376–388 (2023).

CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Rybaczewska-Błażejowska, M. & Jezierski, D. Comparison of ReCiPe 2016, ILCD 2011, CML-IA baseline and IMPACT 2002+LCIA methods: a case study based on the electricity consumption mix in Europe. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 29, 1799–1817 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar