Chen, C., Ding, S. & Wang, J. Digital health for aging populations. Nat. Med. 29, 1623–1630 (2023).
Paci, M. M. et al. Smart closed-loop drug delivery systems. Nat. Rev. Bioeng. 3, 816–834 (2025).
Choi, Y. S. et al. A transient, closed-loop network of wireless, body-integrated devices for autonomous electrotherapy. Science 376, 1006–1012 (2022).
Jiang, Y. et al. Wireless, closed-loop, smart bandage with integrated sensors and stimulators for advanced wound care and accelerated healing. Nat. Biotechnol. 41, 652–662 (2022).
Zhang, Q. et al. A prototype closed-loop brain-machine interface for the study and treatment of pain. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7, 533–545 (2023).
Wei, Y. et al. Integrated individually addressable microneedle arrays for robust glucose monitoring and on-demand insulin releasing. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 11, 211 (2025).
Zou, Y. et al. A closed-loop bioelectronic patch for intelligent blood pressure management. Sci. Adv. 11, eadx6438 (2025).
Gu, G. et al. A soft neuroprosthetic hand providing simultaneous myoelectric control and tactile feedback. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7, 589–598 (2023).
Chen, S. et al. Transforming healthcare: intelligent wearable sensors empowered by smart materials and artificial intelligence. Adv. Mater. 37, 2500412 (2025).
Wang, G. et al. Optimized glycemic control of type 2 diabetes with reinforcement learning: a proof-of-concept trial. Nat. Med. 29, 2633–2642 (2023).
Ding, S. et al. Artificial intelligence-enabled wearable microgrids for self-sustained energy management. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. 2, 683–693 (2025).
Wei, X. et al. Wirelessly controlled drug delivery systems for translational medicine. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. 2, 244–262 (2025).
Chen, E., Prakash, S., Janapa Reddi, V., Kim, D. & Rajpurkar, P. A framework for integrating artificial intelligence for clinical care with continuous therapeutic monitoring. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 9, 445–454 (2025).
Akkas, T. et al. The role of artificial intelligence in advancing biosensor technology: past, present, and future perspectives. Adv. Mater. 37, 2504796 (2025).
Mahato, K. et al. Hybrid multimodal wearable sensors for comprehensive health monitoring. Nat. Electron. 7, 735–750 (2024).
Huang, Y. et al. Bioelectronics for electrical stimulation: materials, devices and biomedical applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 53, 8632–8712 (2024).
Chang, A.-Y. et al. Integration of chemical and physical inputs for monitoring metabolites and cardiac signals in diabetes. Nat. Biomed. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41551-025-01439-z (2025).
Qazi, R. et al. Wireless optofluidic brain probes for chronic neuropharmacology and photostimulation. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 3, 655–669 (2019).
Wu, Y. et al. Wireless multi-lateral optofluidic microsystems for real-time programmable optogenetics and photopharmacology. Nat. Commun. 13, 5571 (2022).
Yoon, Y. et al. Neural probe system for behavioral neuropharmacology by bi-directional wireless drug delivery and electrophysiology in socially interacting mice. Nat. Commun. 13, 5521 (2022).
Wang, L. et al. A biodegradable and restorative peripheral neural interface for the interrogation of neuropathic injuries. Nat. Commun. 16, 1716 (2025).
Wang, Y. et al. Digital automation of transdermal drug delivery with high spatiotemporal resolution. Nat. Commun. 15, 511 (2024).
Huang, X. et al. A skin-interfaced three-dimensional closed-loop sensing and therapeutic electronic wound bandage. Nat. Commun. 16, 5782 (2025).
Ouyang, W. et al. A wireless and battery-less implant for multimodal closed-loop neuromodulation in small animals. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7, 1252–1269 (2023).
Gao, Y. et al. A flexible multiplexed immunosensor for point-of-care in situ wound monitoring. Sci. Adv. 7, eabg9614 (2021).
Xu, C. et al. A physicochemical-sensing electronic skin for stress response monitoring. Nat. Electron. 7, 168–179 (2024).
Wang, M. et al. Printable molecule-selective core-shell nanoparticles for wearable and implantable sensing. Nat. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-024-02096-4 (2025).
Shin, J. et al. A non-contact wearable device for monitoring epidermal molecular flux. Nature 640, 375–383 (2025).
Zhou, Z. et al. Machine learning-powered wearable interface for distinguishable and predictable sweat sensing. Biosens. Bioelectron. 265, 116712 (2024).
Fang, Y. et al. Ambulatory cardiovascular monitoring via a machine-learning-assisted textile triboelectric sensor. Adv. Mater. 33, e2104178 (2021).
Luo, Y. et al. Technology roadmap for flexible sensors. ACS Nano 17, 5211–5295 (2023).
Li, Q. et al. A smart semi-implantable device integrating microchannel-enhanced sampling and multiplex biochemical testing for deep wound monitoring and pathogen identification. Adv Sci (Weinh) 12, e2407868 (2025).
Xiao, J., Zhou, Z., Zhong, G., Xu, T. & Zhang, X. Self-sterilizing microneedle sensing patches for machine learning-enabled wound pH visual monitoring. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2315067 (2024).
Arwani, R. T. et al. Stretchable ionic–electronic bilayer hydrogel electronics enable in situ detection of solid-state epidermal biomarkers. Nat. Mater. 23, 1115–1122 (2024).
Li, N. et al. Bioadhesive polymer semiconductors and transistors for intimate biointerfaces. Science 381, 686–693 (2023).
Zhao, C. et al. Skin-like drift-free biosensors with stretchable diode-connected organic field-effect transistors. Nat. Electron. 8, 981–993 (2025).
Dai, Y. et al. Soft hydrogel semiconductors with augmented biointeractive functions. Science 386, 431–439 (2024).
Zhang, S., Suresh, L., Yang, J., Zhang, X. & Tan, S. C. Augmenting sensor performance with machine learning towards smart wearable sensing electronic systems. Adv. Intell. Syst. 4, 2100194 (2022).
Jin, T. et al. A wireless operated flexible bioelectronic microneedle patch for actively controlled transdermal drug delivery. Adv. Mater. 37, 2417136 (2025).
Xu, G. et al. Battery-free and wireless smart wound dressing for wound infection monitoring and electrically controlled on-demand drug delivery. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2100852 (2021).
Liu, Y., Yu, Q., Ye, L., Yang, L. & Cui, Y. A wearable, minimally-invasive, fully electrochemically-controlled feedback minisystem for diabetes management. Lab Chip 23, 421–436 (2023).
Wang, H. et al. A wearable transdermal device for on-demand drug delivery. Matter https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2025.102040 (2025).
Guan, K. et al. A peri-wound wearable system for dual-modal monitoring and management of healing dynamics. Biosens. Bioelectron. 296, 118344 (2025).
Huang, S. et al. Soft implantation of flexible electronic hairs via tip-focused radiofrequency perforation for in-tissue electrophysiology. Nat. Sens. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44460-025-00004-0 (2026).
Sun, Z. et al. A bioabsorbable body-coupling-electrotherapy suture. Nat. Commun. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-66045-8 (2025).
Jin, S. et al. Injectable tissue prosthesis for instantaneous closed-loop rehabilitation. Nature 623, 58–65 (2023).
Lee, S. et al. A shape-morphing cortex-adhesive sensor for closed-loop transcranial ultrasound neurostimulation. Nat. Electron. 7, 800–814 (2024).
Yao, G. et al. A programmable and skin temperature–activated electromechanical synergistic dressing for effective wound healing. Sci. Adv. 8, eabl8379 (2022).
Liu, Z. et al. Wireless intelligent patch for closed-loop in situ wound management. Adv. Sci. 11, 2400451 (2024).
Li, H. et al. Towards adaptive bioelectronic wound therapy with integrated real-time diagnostics and machine learning–driven closed-loop control. npj Biomed. Innov. 2, 31 (2025).
Bhave, G., Chen, J. C., Singer, A., Sharma, A. & Robinson, J. T. Distributed sensor and actuator networks for closed-loop bioelectronic medicine. Mater. Today 46, 125–135 (2021).
Zhang, R. et al. Adaptive drug delivery to control mean arterial blood pressure by reinforcement fuzzy Q-learning. IEEE Sens. J. 24, 30968–30977 (2024).
Song, J. W. et al. Bioresorbable, wireless, and battery-free system for electrotherapy and impedance sensing at wound sites. Sci. Adv. 9, eade4687 (2023).
Shirzaei Sani, E. et al. A stretchable wireless wearable bioelectronic system for multiplexed monitoring and combination treatment of infected chronic wounds. Sci. Adv. 9, eadf7388 (2023).
Huang, W. et al. Artificial intelligence-enhanced, closed-loop wearable systems toward next-generation diabetes management. Adv. Intell. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1002/aisy.202400822 (2025).
Kim, J., Lee, S., Yoon, J. & Son, D. Soft sensory-neuromorphic system for closed-loop neuroprostheses. Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 7, 042001 (2025).
Wang, B. et al. Organic electrochemical transistors for integrated sensing–memory–computing hardware towards intelligent Internet of Bodies. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44287-025-00234-x (2025).
Lin, R. et al. A flexible wireless skin patch for synchronized glucose monitoring and regulation. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 12, 23 (2026).
Xu, X. et al. Implantable photoelectrochemical-therapeutic methotrexate monitoring system with dual-atomic docking strategy. Nat. Commun. 16, 1747 (2025).
Liu, S. et al. A bio-feedback-mimicking electrode combining real-time monitoring and drug delivery. Innovation (Camb) 5, 100705 (2024).
Bailey, T. S. et al. Evaluation of accuracy and safety of the 365-day implantable Eversense continuous glucose monitoring system: The ENHANCE Study. Diabetes Technol. Ther. 27, 407–411 (2025).
Liu, Y., Yang, L. & Cui, Y. A wearable, rapidly manufacturable, stability-enhancing microneedle patch for closed-loop diabetes management. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 10, 112 (2024).
Nimri, R. et al. Insulin dose optimization using an automated artificial intelligence-based decision support system in youths with type 1 diabetes. Nat. Med. 26, 1380–1384 (2020).
Qu, J. et al. Multifunctional hydrogel electronics for closed-loop antiepileptic treatment. Sci. Adv. 10, eadq9207 (2024).
Lucas, A., Revell, A. & Davis, K. A. Artificial intelligence in epilepsy—applications and pathways to the clinic. Nat. Rev. Bioeng. 20, 319–336 (2024).
Jafari, M. et al. Merging machine learning and bioelectronics for closed-loop control of biological systems and homeostasis. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 4, 101535 (2023).
Zlobina, K., Jafari, M., Rolandi, M. & Gomez, M. The role of machine learning in advancing precision medicine with feedback control. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3, 101149 (2022).
Mai, V. T., Alattas, K. A., Bouteraa, Y., Ghaderpour, E. & Mohammadzadeh, A. Personalized blood pressure control by machine learning for remote patient monitoring. IEEE Access 12, 83994–84004 (2024).
Rajpurkar, P., Chen, E., Banerjee, O. & Topol, E. J. AI in health and medicine. Nat. Med. 28, 31–38 (2022).
MacIsaac, C., Nguyen, M., Uy, A., Kong, T. & Hedayatipour, A. A programmable gain calibration method to mitigate skin tone bias in PPG sensors. Biosensors 15, 423 (2025).
Zhang, A., Xing, L., Zou, J. & Wu, J. C. Shifting machine learning for healthcare from development to deployment and from models to data. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 6, 1330–1345 (2022).
Benjamens, S., Dhunnoo, P. & Meskó, B. The state of artificial intelligence-based FDA-approved medical devices and algorithms: an online database. npj Digit. Med. 3, 118 (2020).
Kelly, C. J., Karthikesalingam, A., Suleyman, M., Corrado, G. & King, D. Key challenges for delivering clinical impact with artificial intelligence. BMC Med. 17, 195 (2019).
Wang, M. et al. Fusing stretchable sensing technology with machine learning for human–machine interfaces. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2008807 (2021).
Zhuang, Q. et al. Permeable, three-dimensional integrated electronic skins with stretchable hybrid liquid metal solders. Nat. Electron. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-024-01189-x (2024).
Qi, J., Gao, F., Sun, G., Yeo, J. C. & Lim, C. T. HaptGlove-untethered pneumatic glove for multimode haptic feedback in reality-virtuality vontinuum. Adv. Sci. 10, e2301044 (2023).
Yu, X. et al. Skin-integrated wireless haptic interfaces for virtual and augmented reality. Nature 575, 473–479 (2019).
Ha, K.-H. et al. Full freedom-of-motion actuators as advanced haptic interfaces. Science 387, 1383–1390 (2025).
Li, X. et al. A fully integrated closed-loop system based on mesoporous microneedles-iontophoresis for diabetes treatment. Adv Sci (Weinh) 8, e2100827 (2021).
Daly, A. B. et al. Fully automated closed-loop insulin delivery in adults with type 2 diabetes: an open-label, single-center, randomized crossover trial. Nat. Med. 29, 203–208 (2023).
Li, S. et al. Monitoring blood pressure and cardiac function without positioning via a deep learning–assisted strain sensor array. Sci. Adv. 9, eadh0615 (2023).
Tsoi, K. et al. Applications of artificial intelligence for hypertension management. J. Clin. Hypertens. 23, 568–574 (2021).
Mackenzie, S. C., Sainsbury, C. A. R. & Wake, D. J. Diabetes and artificial intelligence beyond the closed loop: a review of the landscape, promise and challenges. Diabetologia 67, 223–235 (2024).
Zhao, S. et al. A wearable osmotic microneedle patch provides high-capacity sustained drug delivery in animal models. Sci. Transl. Med. 16, eadp3611 (2024).
Kang, W. et al. Closed-loop direct control of seizure focus in a rodent model of temporal lobe epilepsy via localized electric fields applied sequentially. Nat. Commun. 13, 7805 (2022).
Liu, J. et al. Flexible bioelectronic systems with large-scale temperature sensor arrays for monitoring and treatments of localized wound inflammation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2412423121 (2024).
Boughton, C. K. & Hovorka, R. Advances in artificial pancreas systems. Sci. Transl. Med. 11, eaaw4949 (2019).
Kassiri, H., Muneeb, A., Salahi, R. & Dabbaghian, A. Closed-loop implantable neurostimulators for individualized treatment of intractable epilepsy: a review of recent developments, ongoing challenges, and future opportunities. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst. 18, 1268–1295 (2024).
Cruz Rivera, S. et al. Guidelines for clinical trial protocols for interventions involving artificial intelligence: the SPIRIT-AI extension. Lancet Digit. Health 2, e549–e560 (2020).
Liu, X. et al. Reporting guidelines for clinical trial reports for interventions involving artificial intelligence: the CONSORT-AI extension. Lancet Digit. Health 2, e537–e548 (2020).
Battelino, T. et al. Clinical targets for continuous glucose monitoring data interpretation: recommendations from the international consensus on time in range. Diabetes Care 42, 1593–1603 (2019).
Corrigan-Curay, J., Sacks, L. & Woodcock, J. Real-world evidence and real-world data for evaluating drug safety and effectiveness. JAMA 320, 867–868 (2018).
Emmons, N. A. et al. Feedback control over plasma drug concentrations achieves rapid and accurate control over solid-tissue drug concentrations. ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsptsci.5c00142 (2025).
Phillips, A. A. et al. An implantable system to restore hemodynamic stability after spinal cord injury. Nat. Med. 31, 2946–2957 (2025).
Kang, K. et al. Bionic artificial skin with a fully implantable wireless tactile sensory system for wound healing and restoring skin tactile function. Nat. Commun. 15, 10 (2024).
Zhao, H. et al. A closed-loop smart dressing based on microneedle and electrochemical micropump for early diagnosis and in-time therapy of chronic wound. Sens. Actuat. B Chem. 417, 136092 (2024).
Baker, S. et al. Ethical considerations in closed loop deep brain stimulation. Deep Brain Stimul. 3, 8–15 (2023).
Lou, D. et al. Flexible wound healing system for pro-regeneration, temperature monitoring and infection early warning. Biosens. Bioelectron. 162, 112275 (2020).
Fox, D. S. et al. Cost-effectiveness of closed-loop automated insulin delivery using the Cambridge hybrid algorithm in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes: results from a multicenter 6-month randomized trial. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 19, 982–991 (2025).
Asgharzadeh, A. et al. Hybrid closed-loop systems for managing blood glucose levels in type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and economic modelling. Health Technol. Assess. 28, 80 (2024).
Jendle, J. & Reznik, Y. Use of insulin pumps and closed-loop systems among people living with diabetes: A narrative review of clinical and cost-effectiveness to enable access to technology and meet the needs of payers. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 25, 21–32 (2023).
Topol, E. J. High-performance medicine: the convergence of human and artificial intelligence. Nat. Med. 25, 44–56 (2019).
Rieke, N. et al. The future of digital health with federated learning. npj Digit. Med. 3, 119 (2020).
Bergenstal, R. M. et al. Safety of a hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery system in patients with type 1 diabetes. JAMA 316, 1407–1408 (2016).
Chen, B. et al. Artificial intelligence-assisted high-throughput screening of printing conditions of hydrogel architectures for accelerated diabetic wound healing. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2201843 (2022).
Sherr, J. L. et al. Automated insulin delivery: benefits, challenges, and recommendations. a consensus report of the Joint Diabetes Technology Working Group of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes and the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 45, 3058–3074 (2022).
Kim, J., Campbell, A. S., de Ávila, B. E.-F. & Wang, J. Wearable biosensors for healthcare monitoring. Nat. Biotechnol. 37, 389–406 (2019).
Acosta, J. N., Falcone, G. J., Rajpurkar, P. & Topol, E. J. Multimodal biomedical AI. Nat. Med. 28, 1773–1784 (2022).
Sempionatto, J. R. et al. An epidermal patch for the simultaneous monitoring of haemodynamic and metabolic biomarkers. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 5, 737–748 (2021).
Pavan, J., Salvagnin, D., Facchinetti, A., Sparacino, G. & Favero, S. D. Incorporating sparse and quantized carbohydrates suggestions in model predictive control for artificial pancreas in type 1 diabetes. IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol. 31, 570–586 (2023).
Ge, Z. et al. Wireless and closed-loop smart dressing for exudate management and on-demand treatment of chronic wounds. Adv. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202304005 (2023).
Schamberg, G., Badgeley, M., Meschede-Krasa, B., Kwon, O. & Brown, E. N. Continuous action deep reinforcement learning for propofol dosing during general anesthesia. Artif. Intell. Med. 123, 102227 (2022).
Sharma, R., Deepak, K. K., Gaur, P. & Joshi, D. An optimal interval type-2 fuzzy logic control based closed-loop drug administration to regulate the mean arterial blood pressure. Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 185, 105167 (2020).
Zheng, X. T. et al. Battery-free and AI-enabled multiplexed sensor patches for wound monitoring. Sci. Adv. 9, eadg6670 (2023).
Ding, S. et al. A fingertip-wearable microgrid system for autonomous energy management and metabolic monitoring. Nat. Electron. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-024-01236-7 (2024).
Zhou, Y. et al. An integrated Mg battery-powered iontophoresis patch for efficient and controllable transdermal drug delivery. Nat. Commun. 14, 297 (2023).
Mosquera-Lopez, C. et al. Enabling fully automated insulin delivery through meal detection and size estimation using Artificial Intelligence. npj Digit. Med. 6, 39 (2023).
Little, S. et al. Adaptive deep brain stimulation in advanced Parkinson disease. Ann. Neurol. 74, 449–457 (2013).
Chen, Z. et al. A self-powered controllable microneedle drug delivery system for rapid blood pressure reduction. Nano Energy 123, 109344 (2024).
Ciatti, J. L. et al. An autonomous implantable device for the prevention of death from opioid overdose. Sci. Adv. 10, eadr3567 (2024).