Sabine, C. L. et al. The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2. Science 305, 367–371 (2004).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gruber, N. et al. The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2 from 1994 to 2007. Science 363, 1193–1199 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Frölicher, T. L. et al. Dominance of the Southern Ocean in anthropogenic carbon and heat uptake in CMIP5 models. J. Clim. 28, 862–886 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Caldeira, K. & Duffy, P. B. The role of the Southern Ocean in uptake and storage of anthropogenic carbon dioxide. Science 287, 620–622 (2000).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Morrison, A. K., Waugh, D. W., Hogg, A. M., Jones, D. C. & Abernathey, R. P. Ventilation of the Southern Ocean pycnocline. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 14, 405–430 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Marshall, J. & Speer, K. Closure of the meridional overturning circulation through Southern Ocean upwelling. Nat. Geosci. 5, 171–180 (2012).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Talley, L. Closure of the global overturning circulation through the Indian, Pacific, and Southern Oceans: schematics and transports. Oceanography 26, 80–97 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Murnane, R. J., Sarmiento, J. L. & Le Quéré, C. Spatial distribution of air-sea CO2 fluxes and the interhemispheric transport of carbon by the oceans. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 13, 287–305 (1999).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, H., Haumann, F. A., Talley, L. D., Johnson, K. S. & Sarmiento, J. L. The deep ocean’s carbon exhaust. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 36, e2021GB007156 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Bushinsky, S. M. et al. Reassessing Southern Ocean air-sea CO2 flux estimates with the addition of biogeochemical float observations. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 33, 1370–1388 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Le Quéré, C. et al. Saturation of the Southern Ocean CO2 sink due to recent climate change. Science 316, 1735–1738 (2007).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lovenduski, N. S., Gruber, N. & Doney, S. C. Toward a mechanistic understanding of the decadal trends in the Southern Ocean carbon sink. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GB003139 (2008).

Waugh, D. W., Primeau, F., DeVries, T. & Holzer, M. Recent changes in the ventilation of the southern oceans. Science 339, 568–570 (2013).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Miller, R. L., Schmidt, G. A. & Shindell, D. T. Forced annular variations in the 20th century Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report models. J. Geophys. Res. Atmospheres 111, D18101 (2006).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Gillett, N. P. & Thompson, D. W. J. Simulation of recent Southern Hemisphere climate change. Science 302, 273–275 (2003).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Marshall, G. J. Trends in the southern annular mode from observations and reanalyses. J. Clim. 16, 4134–4143 (2003).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Thompson, D. W. J. et al. Signatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in Southern Hemisphere surface climate change. Nat. Geosci. 4, 741–749 (2011).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lee, S.-K. et al. Human-induced changes in the global meridional overturning circulation are emerging from the Southern Ocean. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, 69 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bronselaer, B. et al. Importance of wind and meltwater for observed chemical and physical changes in the Southern Ocean. Nat. Geosci. 13, 35–42 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lovenduski, N. S., Gruber, N., Doney, S. C. & Lima, I. D. Enhanced CO2 outgassing in the Southern Ocean from a positive phase of the Southern Annular Mode. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GB002900 (2007).

Lenton, A. & Matear, R. J. Role of the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) in Southern Ocean CO2 uptake. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GB002714 (2007).

Lenton, A. et al. Sea–air CO2 fluxes in the Southern Ocean for the period 1990–2009. Biogeosciences 10, 4037–4054 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Metzl, N. Decadal increase of oceanic carbon dioxide in Southern Indian Ocean surface waters (1991–2007). Deep-Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 56, 607–619 (2009).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zheng, F., Li, J., Clark, R. T. & Nnamchi, H. C. Simulation and projection of the Southern Hemisphere annular mode in CMIP5 models. J. Clim. 26, 9860–9879 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Goyal, R., Sen Gupta, A., Jucker, M. & England, M. H. Historical and projected changes in the Southern Hemisphere surface westerlies. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48, e2020GL090849 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Landschützer, P. et al. The reinvigoration of the Southern Ocean carbon sink. Science 349, 1221–1224 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Gregor, L., Kok, S. & Monteiro, P. M. S. Interannual drivers of the seasonal cycle of CO2 in the Southern Ocean. Biogeosciences 15, 2361–2378 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Munro, D. R. et al. Recent evidence for a strengthening CO2 sink in the Southern Ocean from carbonate system measurements in the Drake Passage (2002–2015). Geophys. Res. Lett. 42, 7623–7630 (2015).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gruber, N., Landschützer, P. & Lovenduski, N. S. The variable Southern Ocean carbon sink. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 11, 159–186 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Keppler, L. & Landschützer, P. Regional wind variability modulates the Southern Ocean carbon sink. Sci. Rep. 9, 7384 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lovenduski, N. S. & Ito, T. The future evolution of the Southern Ocean CO2 sink. J. Mar. Res. 67, 597–617 (2009).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Terhaar, J., Frölicher, T. L. & Joos, F. Southern Ocean anthropogenic carbon sink constrained by sea surface salinity. Sci. Adv. 7, eabd5964 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Swart, N. C., Gille, S. T., Fyfe, J. C. & Gillett, N. P. Recent Southern Ocean warming and freshening driven by greenhouse gas emissions and ozone depletion. Nat. Geosci. 11, 836–841 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

François, R. et al. Contribution of Southern Ocean surface-water stratification to low atmospheric CO2 concentrations during the last glacial period. Nature 389, 929–935 (1997).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Anderson, R. F. et al. Wind-driven upwelling in the Southern Ocean and the deglacial rise in atmospheric CO2. Science 323, 1443–1448 (2009).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Hasenfratz, A. P. et al. The residence time of Southern Ocean surface waters and the 100,000-year ice age cycle. Science 363, 1080–1084 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Anderson, R. F., Chase, Z., Fleisher, M. Q. & Sachs, J. The Southern Ocean’s biological pump during the Last Glacial Maximum. Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 49, 1909–1938 (2002).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Hogg, A. M., Spence, P., Saenko, O. A. & Downes, S. M. The energetics of Southern Ocean upwelling. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 47, 135–153 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Haumann, F. A., Gruber, N. & Münnich, M. Sea-ice induced Southern Ocean subsurface warming and surface cooling in a warming climate. AGU Adv. 1, e2019AV000132 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

IPCC IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (eds Pörtner, H.-O. et al.) (Cambridge University Press, 2022).

Lauvset, S. K. et al. A new global interior ocean mapped climatology: the 1° × 1° GLODAP version 2. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 8, 325–340 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lauvset, S. K. et al. The annual update GLODAPv2.2023: the global interior ocean biogeochemical data product. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 16, 2047–2072 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hauck, J. et al. The Southern Ocean carbon cycle 1985–2018: mean, seasonal cycle, trends, and storage. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 37, e2023GB007848 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Toole, J. M. Sea ice, winter convection, and the temperature minimum layer in the Southern Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 86, 8037–8047 (1981).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Spira, T., Swart, S., Giddy, I. & du Plessis, M. The observed spatiotemporal variability of Antarctic winter water. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 129, e2024JC021017 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zu, Y., Gao, L., Guo, G. & Fang, Y. Changes of circumpolar deep water between 2006 and 2020 in the south-west Indian Ocean, East Antarctica. Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 197, 105043 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Schmidtko, S., Heywood, K. J., Thompson, A. F. & Aoki, S. Multidecadal warming of Antarctic waters. Science 346, 1227–1231 (2014).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Sallée, J.-B. et al. Summertime increases in upper-ocean stratification and mixed-layer depth. Nature 591, 592–598 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Gray, A. R. et al. Autonomous biogeochemical floats detect significant carbon dioxide outgassing in the high-latitude Southern Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 9049–9057 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Akhoudas, C. H. et al. Isotopic evidence for an intensified hydrological cycle in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean. Nat. Commun. 14, 2763 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Haumann, F. A., Gruber, N., Münnich, M., Frenger, I. & Kern, S. Sea-ice transport driving Southern Ocean salinity and its recent trends. Nature 537, 89–92 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Roach, L. A. et al. Winds and meltwater together lead to Southern Ocean surface cooling and sea ice expansion. Geophys. Res. Lett. 50, e2023GL105948 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Ferreira, D., Marshall, J., Bitz, C. M., Solomon, S. & Plumb, A. Antarctic Ocean and sea ice response to ozone depletion: a two-time-scale problem. J. Clim. 28, 1206–1226 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kostov, Y., Ferreira, D., Armour, K. C. & Marshall, J. Contributions of greenhouse gas forcing and the Southern Annular Mode to historical Southern Ocean surface temperature trends. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 1086–1097 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Purich, A. & Doddridge, E. W. Record low Antarctic sea ice coverage indicates a new sea ice state. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, 314 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Silvano, A. et al. Rising surface salinity and declining sea ice: a new Southern Ocean state revealed by satellites. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 122, e2500440122 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Spira, T. et al. Wind-triggered Antarctic sea ice decline preconditioned by thinning winter water. Preprint at Research Square https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5919587/v1 (2025).

Krumhardt, K. M., Long, M. C., Lindsay, K. & Levy, M. N. Southern Ocean calcification controls the global distribution of alkalinity. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 34, e2020GB006727 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Sharp, J. D. et al. CO2SYSv3 for MATLAB. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4023039 (2020).

Lueker, T. J., Dickson, A. G. & Keeling, C. D. Ocean pCO2 calculated from dissolved inorganic carbon, alkalinity, and equations for K1 and K2: validation based on laboratory measurements of CO2 in gas and seawater at equilibrium. Mar. Chem. 70, 105–119 (2000).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Olivier, L. & Haumann, F. A. Scripts for the publication “Southern Ocean freshening stalls deep ocean CO2 release in a changing climate”. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16873426 (2025).