Maykut, G. A. Energy exchange over young sea ice in the central Arctic. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 83, 3646–3658 (1978).
Perovich, D. K., Grenfell, T. C., Light, B. & Hobbs, P. V. Seasonal evolution of the albedo of multiyear Arctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 107, 8044 (2002).
Perovich, D. K. & Polashenski, C. Albedo evolution of seasonal Arctic sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L08501 (2012).
Morales Maqueda, M. A., Willmott, A. J. & Biggs, N. R. T. Polynya dynamics: a review of observations and modeling. Rev. Geophys. 42, RG1004 (2004).
Barber, D. G. & Massom, R. A. The role of sea ice in Arctic and Antarctic polynyas. In Elsevier Oceanography Series Vol. 74, Ch. 1 (eds Smith, W. O. & Barber, D. G.) 1–54 (Elsevier, 2007).
Post, E. et al. Ecological consequences of sea-ice decline. Science 341, 519–524 (2013).
Moon, T. A., Druckenmiller, M. L. & Thoman, R. L. NOAA Arctic Report Card 2024: Executive Summary https://doi.org/10.25923/B7C7-6431 (2024).
Maslanik, J., Stroeve, J., Fowler, C. & Emery, W. Distribution and trends in Arctic sea ice age through spring 2011. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L13502 (2011).
Tschudi, M. A., Meier, W. N. & Stewart, J. S. An enhancement to sea ice motion and age products at the national snow and ice data center (NSIDC). Cryosphere 14, 1519–1536 (2020).
Babb, D. G. et al. The stepwise reduction of multiyear sea ice area in the Arctic ocean since 1980. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 128, e2023JC020157 (2023).
Markus, T., Stroeve, J. C. & Miller, J. Recent changes in Arctic sea ice melt onset, freezeup, and melt season length. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 114, C12024 (2009).
Stroeve, J. C., Markus, T., Boisvert, L., Miller, J. & Barrett, A. Changes in Arctic melt season and implications for sea ice loss. Geophys. Res. Lett. 41, 1216–1225 (2014).
Bliss, A. C. Passive microwave Arctic sea ice melt onset dates from the advanced horizontal range algorithm 1979–2022. Sci. Data 10, 857 (2023).
Maslowski, W., Kinney, J. C., Higgins, M. & Roberts, A. The future of Arctic sea ice. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 40, 625–654 (2012).
Notz, D. & Community, S. Arctic sea ice in CMIP6. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47, e2019GL086749 (2020).
Kim, Y.-H., Min, S.-K., Gillett, N. P., Notz, D. & Malinina, E. Observationally-constrained projections of an ice-free Arctic even under a low emission scenario. Nat. Commun. 14, 3139 (2023).
Heuzé, C. & Jahn, A. The first ice-free day in the Arctic Ocean could occur before 2030. Nat. Commun. 15, 10101 (2024).
Jahn, A., Holland, M. M. & Kay, J. E. Projections of an ice-free Arctic Ocean. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 5, 164–176 (2024).
IPCC Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. In Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Core Writing Team, Lee, H. & Romero, J.) 35–115 https://doi.org/10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647 (IPCC, 2023).
Purich, A. & Doddridge, E. W. Record low Antarctic sea ice coverage indicates a new sea ice state. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, 314 (2023).
Roach, L. A. & Meier, W. N. Sea ice in 2024. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 6, 252–254 (2025).
Raphael, M. N., Maierhofer, T. J., Fogt, R. L., Hobbs, W. R. & Handcock, M. S. A twenty-first century structural change in Antarctica’s sea ice system. Commun. Earth Environ. 6, 131 (2025).
Morrison, A. L., Kay, J. E., Frey, W. R., Chepfer, H. & Guzman, R. Cloud response to Arctic sea ice loss and implications for future feedback in the CESM1 climate model. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124, 1003–1020 (2019).
Olonscheck, D., Mauritsen, T. & Notz, D. Arctic sea-ice variability is primarily driven by atmospheric temperature fluctuations. Nat. Geosci. 12, 430–434 (2019).
Dörr, J., Årthun, M., Eldevik, T. & Madonna, E. Mechanisms of regional winter sea-ice variability in a warming Arctic. J. Clim. 34, 8635–8653 (2021).
Li, X. et al. Tropical teleconnection impacts on Antarctic climate changes. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 2, 680–698 (2021).
Gregory, J. M. et al. Recent and future changes in Arctic sea ice simulated by the HadCM3 AOGCM. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 2175 (2002).
Serreze, M. C. & Barrett, A. P. Characteristics of the Beaufort Sea high. J. Clim. 24, 159–182 (2011).
Kwok, R. Arctic sea ice thickness, volume, and multiyear ice coverage: losses and coupled variability (1958–2018). Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 105005 (2018).
Steele, M. & Boyd, T. Retreat of the cold halocline layer in the Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 103, 10419–10435 (1998).
Stammerjohn, S. & Maksym, T. in Sea Ice 3rd edn (ed. Thomas, D. N.) Ch. 10 (John Wiley & Sons, 2017).
Haumann, F. A., Gruber, N., Münnich, M., Frenger, I. & Kern, S. Sea-ice transport driving Southern Ocean salinity and its recent trends. Nature 537, 89–92 (2016).
Martinson, D. G. Evolution of the southern ocean winter mixed layer and sea ice: Open ocean deepwater formation and ventilation. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 95, 11641–11654 (1990).
Manabe, S. & Stouffer, R. J. Sensitivity of a global climate model to an increase of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 85, 5529–5554 (1980).
Marshall, J. et al. The ocean’s role in polar climate change: asymmetric Arctic and Antarctic responses to greenhouse gas and ozone forcing. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 372, 20130040 (2014).
Armour, K. C., Marshall, J., Scott, J. R., Donohoe, A. & Newsom, E. R. Southern Ocean warming delayed by circumpolar upwelling and equatorward transport. Nat. Geosci. 9, 549–554 (2016).
Goosse, H. et al. Quantifying climate feedbacks in polar regions. Nat. Commun. 9, 1919 (2018).
Meehl, G. A., Arblaster, J. M., Bitz, C. M., Chung, C. T. Y. & Teng, H. Antarctic sea-ice expansion between 2000 and 2014 driven by tropical Pacific decadal climate variability. Nat. Geosci. 9, 590–595 (2016).
Meehl, G. A. et al. Sustained ocean changes contributed to sudden Antarctic sea ice retreat in late 2016. Nat. Commun. 10, 14 (2019).
Nghiem, S. V. et al. Rapid reduction of Arctic perennial sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031138 (2007).
Wang, Q. et al. Physical properties of summer sea ice in the Pacific sector of the Arctic during 2008–2018. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 125, e2020JC016371 (2020).
Timco, G. W. & Weeks, W. F. A review of the engineering properties of sea ice. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 60, 107–129 (2010).
Eicken, H., Lovecraft, A. L. & Druckenmiller, M. L. Sea-ice system services: a framework to help identify and meet information needs relevant for Arctic observing networks. Arctic 62, 119–136 (2009).
Webster, M. et al. Snow in the changing sea-ice systems. Nat. Clim. Change 8, 946–953 (2018).
Polashenski, C., Perovich, D. & Courville, Z. The mechanisms of sea ice melt pond formation and evolution. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 117, C01001 (2012).
Webster, M. A. et al. Seasonal evolution of melt ponds on Arctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 120, 5968–5982 (2015).
Light, B., Perovich, D. K., Webster, M. A., Polashenski, C. & Dadic, R. Optical properties of melting first-year Arctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 120, 7657–7675 (2015).
WMO sea-ice nomenclature. World Meteorological Organization https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/41953 (2014).
Sumata, H., de Steur, L., Divine, D. V., Granskog, M. A. & Gerland, S. Regime shift in Arctic Ocean sea ice thickness. Nature 615, 443–449 (2023).
Screen, J. A., Simmonds, I., Deser, C. & Tomas, R. The atmospheric response to three decades of observed Arctic sea ice loss. J. Clim. 26, 1230–1248 (2013).
Lang, A., Yang, S. & Kaas, E. Sea ice thickness and recent Arctic warming. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 409–418 (2017).
Labe, Z., Peings, Y. & Magnusdottir, G. Contributions of ice thickness to the atmospheric response from projected Arctic sea ice loss. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 5635–5642 (2018).
Leu, E., Wiktor, J., Søreide, J. E., Berge, J. & Falk-Petersen, S. Increased irradiance reduces food quality of sea ice algae. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 411, 49–60 (2010).
Leu, E., Søreide, J. E., Hessen, D. O., Falk-Petersen, S. & Berge, J. Consequences of changing sea-ice cover for primary and secondary producers in the European Arctic shelf seas: timing, quantity, and quality. Progr. Oceanogr. 90, 18–32 (2011).
Melsheimer, C., Spreen, G., Ye, Y. & Shokr, M. First results of Antarctic sea ice type retrieval from active and passive microwave remote sensing data. Cryosphere 17, 105–126 (2023).
Jacobs, S. S. & Comiso, J. C. Climate variability in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas. J. Clim. 10, 697–709 (1997).
Comiso, J. C., Kwok, R., Martin, S. & Gordon, A. L. Variability and trends in sea ice extent and ice production in the Ross Sea. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006391 (2011).
Parkinson, C. L. A 40-y record reveals gradual Antarctic sea ice increases followed by decreases at rates far exceeding the rates seen in the Arctic. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 14414–14423 (2019).
Massom, R. A. et al. Examining the interaction between multi-year landfast sea ice and the Mertz Glacier Tongue, East Antarctica: another factor in ice sheet stability? J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 115, C12027 (2010).
Thorndike, A. S., Rothrock, D. A., Maykut, G. A. & Colony, R. The thickness distribution of sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. 80, 4501–4513 (1975).
Rothrock, D. A., Yu, Y. & Maykut, G. A. Thinning of the Arctic sea-ice cover. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26, 3469–3472 (1999).
Kwok, R. & Rothrock, D. A. Decline in Arctic sea ice thickness from submarine and ICESat records: 1958–2008. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L15501 (2009).
Laxon, S., Peacock, N. & Smith, D. High interannual variability of sea ice thickness in the Arctic region. Nature 425, 947–950 (2003).
Kwok, R. & Cunningham, G. F. Variability of Arctic sea ice thickness and volume from CryoSat-2. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 373, 20140157 (2015).
Tilling, R. L., Ridout, A. & Shepherd, A. Estimating Arctic sea ice thickness and volume using CryoSat-2 radar altimeter data. Adv. Space Res. 62, 1203–1225 (2018).
Guerreiro, K., Fleury, S., Zakharova, E., Rémy, F. & Kouraev, A. Potential for estimation of snow depth on Arctic sea ice from CryoSat-2 and SARAL/AltiKa missions. Remote. Sens. Environ. 186, 339–349 (2016).
Kwok, R., Kacimi, S., Webster, M. A., Kurtz, N. T. & Petty, A. A. Arctic snow depth and sea ice thickness from ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2 freeboards: a first examination. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 125, e2019JC016008 (2020).
Kacimi, S. & Kwok, R. Two decades of Arctic sea-ice thickness from satellite altimeters: retrieval approaches and record of changes (2003–2023). Remote. Sens. 16, 2983 (2024).
Stern, H. L. Regime shift in Arctic Ocean sea-ice extent. Geophys. Res. Lett. 52, e2024GL114546 (2025).
Worby, A. P. et al. Thickness distribution of Antarctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 113, C05S92 (2008).
Kern, S. ESA-CCI_Phase2_Standardized_Manual_Visual_Ship-Based_SeaIceObservations_v02. 17458688. Bytes World Data Center for Climate (WDCC) at DKRZ https://doi.org/10.26050/WDCC/ESACCIPSMVSBSIOV2 (2020).
Kwok, R. & Kacimi, S. Three years of sea ice freeboard, snow depth, and ice thickness of the Weddell Sea from Operation IceBridge and CryoSat-2. Cryosphere 12, 2789–2801 (2018).
Kacimi, S. & Kwok, R. The Antarctic sea ice cover from ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2: freeboard, snow depth, and ice thickness. Cryosphere 14, 4453–4474 (2020).
Fons, S., Kurtz, N. & Bagnardi, M. A decade-plus of Antarctic sea ice thickness and volume estimates from CryoSat-2 using a physical model and waveform fitting. Cryosphere 17, 2487–2508 (2023).
Bocquet, M., Fleury, S., Rémy, F. & Piras, F. Arctic and Antarctic sea ice thickness and volume changes from observations between 1994 and 2023. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 129, e2023JC020848 (2024).
Maksym, T. & Stammerjohn, S. in Sea Ice: Its Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geology and Societal Importance (ed. Thomas, D. N.) Ch. 6 (John Wiley & Sons, 2025).
Kern, S. & Spreen, G. Uncertainties in Antarctic sea-ice thickness retrieval from ICESat. Ann. Glaciol. 56, 107–119 (2015).
Giles, K. A., Laxon, S. W. & Worby, A. P. Antarctic sea ice elevation from satellite radar altimetry. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L03503 (2008).
Liu, X., Corney, S. P., Tilling, R. L. & Heil, P. Brief communication: retrieval-driven spread in Antarctic winter freeboards (CryoSat-2, 2013–2018). Prepr. EGUsphere https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-662 (2026).
Taylor, P. C., Hegyi, B. M., Boeke, R. C. & Boisvert, L. N. On the increasing importance of air-sea exchanges in a thawing Arctic: a review. Atmosphere 9, 41 (2018).
Webster, M. A., Liu, Z., Light, B. & Perovich, D. K. A brighter Arctic Ocean: trends in solar partitioning in the Arctic sea ice–ocean system from 1984 to 2024. Geophys. Res. Lett. 53, e2025GL120478 (2026).
Parkinson, C. L. Spatially mapped reductions in the length of the Arctic sea ice season. Geophys. Res. Lett. 41, 4316–4322 (2014).
Parkinson, C. L. Arctic sea ice coverage from 43 years of satellite passive-microwave observations. Front. Remote. Sens. 3, 1021781 (2022).
Parkinson, C. L. Trends in the length of the Southern Ocean sea-ice season, 1979–99. Ann. Glaciol. 34, 435–440 (2002).
Wilson, E. A., Arlen, L. & Campbell, E. C. Recent extremes in Antarctic sea ice extent modulated by ocean heat ventilation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 123, e2530832123 (2026).
Eayrs, C. et al. Understanding the seasonal cycle of Antarctic sea ice extent in the context of longer-term variability. Rev. Geophys. 57, 1037–1064 (2019).
Kapsch, M.-L., Graversen, R. G. & Tjernström, M. Springtime atmospheric energy transport and the control of Arctic summer sea-ice extent. Nat. Clim. Change 3, 744–748 (2013).
Mortin, J. et al. Melt onset over Arctic sea ice controlled by atmospheric moisture transport. Geophys. Res. Lett. 43, 6636–6642 (2016).
Liu, Z. & Schweiger, A. Synoptic conditions, clouds, and sea ice melt onset in the Beaufort and Chukchi seasonal ice zone. J. Clim. 30, 6999–7016 (2017).
Livingstone, C. E., Singh, K. P. & Gray, A. L. 1021781. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. GE-25, 159–173 (1987).
Perovich, D. K. & Richter-Menge, J. A. Regional variability in sea ice melt in a changing Arctic. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 373, 20140165 (2015).
Lin, L., Lei, R., Hoppmann, M., Perovich, D. K. & He, H. Changes in the annual sea ice freeze–thaw cycle in the Arctic Ocean from 2001 to 2018. Cryosphere 16, 4779–4796 (2022).
Drinkwater, M. R. & Liu, X. Seasonal to interannual variability in Antarctic sea-ice surface melt. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens. 38, 1827–1842 (2000).
Nihashi, S. & Cavalieri, D. J. Observational evidence of a hemispheric-wide ice–ocean albedo feedback effect on Antarctic sea-ice decay. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003447 (2006).
Andreas, E. L. & Ackley, S. F. On the differences in ablation seasons of Arctic and Antarctic Sea Ice. J. Atmos. Sci. 39, 440–447 (1982).
Maksym, T., Stammerjohn, S. E., Ackley, S. & Massom, R. Antarctic sea ice — a polar opposite? Oceanography 25, 140–151 (2012).
Drobot, S. D. & Anderson, M. R. An improved method for determining snowmelt onset dates over Arctic sea ice using scanning multichannel microwave radiometer and Special Sensor Microwave/Imager data. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 106, 24033–24049 (2001).
Bliss, A. C. & Anderson, M. R. Arctic sea ice melt onset timing from passive microwave-based and surface air temperature-based methods. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos 123, 9063–9080 (2018).
Meier, W. N. & Stroeve, J. An updated assessment of the changing arctic sea ice cover. Oceanography 35, 10–19 (2022).
Peng, G., Steele, M., Bliss, A. C., Meier, W. N. & Dickinson, S. Temporal means and variability of arctic sea ice melt and freeze season climate indicators using a satellite climate data record. Remote. Sens. 10, 1328 (2018).
Steele, M. & Dickinson, S. The phenology of Arctic Ocean surface warming. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 121, 6847–6861 (2016).
Perovich, D., Light, B. & Dickinson, S. Changing ice and changing light: trends in solar heat input to the upper Arctic ocean from 1988 to 2014. Ann. Glaciol. 61, 401–407 (2020).
Stammerjohn, S., Massom, R., Rind, D. & Martinson, D. Regions of rapid sea ice change: an inter-hemispheric seasonal comparison. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL050874 (2012).
Willmes, S., Bareiss, J., Haas, C. & Nicolaus, M. The importance of diurnal processes for the Seasonal cycle of Sea-ice microwave brightness temperatures during early Summer in the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. Ann. Glaciol. 44, 297–302 (2006).
Arndt, S., Willmes, S., Dierking, W. & Nicolaus, M. Timing and regional patterns of snowmelt on Antarctic sea ice from passive microwave satellite observations. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 121, 5916–5930 (2016).
Arndt, S. & Haas, C. Spatiotemporal variability and decadal trends of snowmelt processes on Antarctic sea ice observed by satellite scatterometers. Cryosphere 13, 1943–1958 (2019).
Xu, R., Zhao, C., Arndt, S. & Haas, C. Dual-frequency radar observations of snowmelt processes on Antarctic perennial sea ice by CFOSCAT and ASCAT. Cryosphere 18, 5769–5788 (2024).
Himmich, K. et al. Drivers of Antarctic sea ice advance. Nat. Commun. 14, 6219 (2023).
Nihashi, S. & Ohshima, K. I. Relationship between ice decay and solar heating through open water in the Antarctic sea ice zone. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 106, 16767–16782 (2001).
Warren, S. G. Optical properties of ice and snow. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 377, 20180161 (2019).
Mellor, M. Engineering properties of snow. J. Glaciol. 19, 15–66 (1977).
Zhang, T. Influence of the seasonal snow cover on the ground thermal regime: an overview. Rev. Geophysics https://doi.org/10.1029/2004RG000157 (2005).
Ledley, T. S. Snow on sea ice: competing effects in shaping climate. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 96, 17195–17208 (1991).
Leu, E. et al. Arctic spring awakening — steering principles behind the phenology of vernal ice algal blooms. Prog. Oceanogr. 139, 151–170 (2015).
Laidre, K. L. et al. Quantifying the sensitivity of arctic marine mammals to climate-induced habitat change. Ecol. Appl. 18, S97–S125 (2008).
Kovacs, K. M., Lydersen, C., Overland, J. E. & Moore, S. E. Impacts of changing sea-ice conditions on Arctic marine mammals. Mar. Biodiv 41, 181–194 (2011).
Maykut, G. A. The surface heat and mass balance. In The Geophysics of Sea Ice (ed. Untersteiner, N.) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-5352-0_6 (Springer, 1986)
Sturm, M., Perovich, D. K. & Holmgren, J. Thermal conductivity and heat transfer through the snow on the ice of the Beaufort Sea. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 107, SHE 19-1–SHE 19-17 (2002).
Massom, R. A. et al. Snow on Antarctic sea ice. Rev. Geophysics 39, 413–445 (2001).
Sturm, M. & Massom, R. A. in Sea Ice (ed. Thomas, D. N.) Ch. 3 (John Wiley and Sons, 2017).
Webster, M. A. et al. Interdecadal changes in snow depth on Arctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 119, 5395–5406 (2014).
Serreze, M. C. Climatological aspects of cyclone development and decay in the Arctic. Atmos. Ocean 33, 1–23 (1995).
Zhang, X., Walsh, J. E., Zhang, J., Bhatt, U. S. & Ikeda, M. Climatology and interannual variability of arctic cyclone activity: 1948–2002. J. Clim. 17, 2300–2317 (2004).
Simmonds, I., Burke, C. & Keay, K. Arctic climate change as manifest in cyclone behavior. J. Clim. 21, 5777–5796 (2008).
Webster, M. A., Parker, C., Boisvert, L. & Kwok, R. The role of cyclone activity in snow accumulation on Arctic sea ice. Nat. Commun. 10, 5285 (2019).
Webster, M. A. et al. Summer snow on Arctic sea ice modulated by the Arctic Oscillation. Nat. Geosci. 17, 995–1002 (2024).
Boisvert, L. N., Webster, M. A., Parker, C. L. & Forbes, R. M. Rainy days in the Arctic. J. Clim. 36, 6855–6878 (2023).
Dou, T. et al. Trends and spatial variation in rain-on-snow events over the Arctic Ocean during the early melt season. Cryosphere 15, 883–895 (2021).
Warren, S. G. et al. Snow depth on arctic sea ice. J. Clim. 12, 1814–1829 (1999).
Lim, W.-I., Park, H.-S., Petty, A. A. & Seo, K.-H. The role of summer snowstorms on seasonal Arctic sea ice loss. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 127, e2021JC018066 (2022).
Chapman-Dutton, H. R. & Webster, M. A. The effects of summer snowfall on arctic sea ice radiative forcing. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 129, e2023JD040667 (2024).
Eicken, H., Grenfell, T. C., Perovich, D. K., Richter-Menge, J. A. & Frey, K. Hydraulic controls of summer Arctic pack ice albedo. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JC001989 (2004).
Jeffries, M. O., Krouse, H. R., Hurst-Cushing, B. & Maksym, T. Snow-ice accretion and snow-cover depletion on Antarctic first-year sea-ice floes. Ann. Glaciol. 33, 51–60 (2001).
Maksym, T. & Markus, T. Antarctic sea ice thickness and snow-to-ice conversion from atmospheric reanalysis and passive microwave snow depth. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JC004085 (2008).
Lubin, D. & Massom, R. in Polar Remote Sensing: Volume I: Atmosphere and Oceans, 309–728 (Springer, 2006).
Nicolaus, M. et al. Snow depth and air temperature seasonality on sea ice derived from snow buoy measurements. Front. Mar. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.655446 (2021).
Arndt, S., Maaß, N., Rossmann, L. & Nicolaus, M. From snow accumulation to snow depth distributions by quantifying meteoric ice fractions in the Weddell Sea. Cryosphere 18, 2001–2015 (2024).
Shen, X., Ke, C.-Q. & Li, H. Snow depth product over Antarctic sea ice from 2002 to 2020 using multisource passive microwave radiometers. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 14, 619–636 (2022).
Flanner, M. G., Shell, K. M., Barlage, M., Perovich, D. K. & Tschudi, M. A. Radiative forcing and albedo feedback from the northern hemisphere cryosphere between 1979 and 2008. Nat. Geosci. 4, 151–155 (2011).
Pistone, K., Eisenman, I. & Ramanathan, V. Radiative heating of an ice-free Arctic ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 7474–7480 (2019).
Riihelä, A., Bright, R. M. & Anttila, K. Recent strengthening of snow and ice albedo feedback driven by Antarctic sea-ice loss. Nat. Geosci. 14, 832–836 (2021).
Duspayev, A., Flanner, M. G. & Riihelä, A. Earth’s sea ice radiative effect from 1980 to 2023. Geophys. Res. Lett. 51, e2024GL109608 (2024).
Pistone, K., Eisenman, I. & Ramanathan, V. Observational determination of albedo decrease caused by vanishing Arctic sea ice. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 3322–3326 (2014).
Riihelä, A., Manninen, T. & Laine, V. Observed changes in the albedo of the Arctic sea-ice zone for the period 1982–2009. Nat. Clim. Change 3, 895–898 (2013).
Light, B. et al. Arctic sea ice albedo: spectral composition, spatial heterogeneity, and temporal evolution observed during the MOSAiC drift. Elem. Sci. Anth. 10, 000103 (2022).
Sledd, A. & L’Ecuyer, T. How much do clouds mask the impacts of arctic sea ice and snow cover variations? Different perspectives from observations and reanalyses. Atmosphere 10, 12 (2019).
Donohoe, A., Blanchard-Wrigglesworth, E., Schweiger, A. & Rasch, P. J. The effect of atmospheric transmissivity on model and observational estimates of the sea ice albedo feedback. J. Clim. 33, 5743–5765 (2020).
Rantanen, M. et al. The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979. Commun. Earth Env. 3, 1–10 (2022).
Schröder, D., Feltham, D. L., Flocco, D. & Tsamados, M. September Arctic sea-ice minimum predicted by spring melt-pond fraction. Nat. Clim. Change 4, 353–357 (2014).
McCrystall, M. R., Stroeve, J., Serreze, M., Forbes, B. C. & Screen, J. A. New climate models reveal faster and larger increases in Arctic precipitation than previously projected. Nat. Commun. 12, 6765 (2021).
Hutchings, J. K., Roberts, A., Geiger, C. A. & Richter-Menge, J. Spatial and temporal characterization of sea-ice deformation. Ann. Glaciol. 52, 360–368 (2011).
McPhee, M. G. in Sea Ice (ed. Thomas, D. N.) Ch. 5 (John Wiley and Sons, 2017).
Leppäranta, M. The Drift of Sea Ice (Springer, 2011).
Nürnberg, D. et al. Sediments in Arctic sea ice: implications for entrainment, transport and release. Mar. Geol. 119, 185–214 (1994).
Pfirman, S. L., Eicken, H., Bauch, D. & Weeks, W. F. The potential transport of pollutants by Arctic sea ice. Sci. Total. Environ. 159, 129–146 (1995).
Macdonald, R. W., Harner, T. & Fyfe, J. Recent climate change in the Arctic and its impact on contaminant pathways and interpretation of temporal trend data. Sci. Total. Environ. 342, 5–86 (2005).
Kanhai, L. D. K., Gardfeldt, K., Krumpen, T., Thompson, R. C. & O’Connor, I. Microplastics in sea ice and seawater beneath ice floes from the Arctic Ocean. Sci. Rep. 10, 5004 (2020).
Rigor, I. G. & Wallace, J. M. Variations in the age of Arctic sea-ice and summer sea-ice extent. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, L09401 (2004).
Thorndike, A. S. & Colony, R. Sea ice motion in response to geostrophic winds. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 87, 5845–5852 (1982).
Rigor, I. G., Wallace, J. M. & Colony, R. L. Response of sea ice to the arctic oscillation. J. Clim. 15, 2648–2663 (2002).
Kwok, R., Spreen, G. & Pang, S. Arctic sea ice circulation and drift speed: decadal trends and ocean currents. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 118, 2408–2425 (2013).
Overland, J. E. Atmospheric boundary layer structure and drag coefficients over sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 90, 9029–9049 (1985).
Tsamados, M. et al. Impact of variable atmospheric and oceanic form drag on simulations of Arctic Sea Ice. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 44, 1329–1353 (2014).
Stammerjohn, S. E., Martinson, D. G., Smith, R. C., Yuan, X. & Rind, D. Trends in Antarctic annual sea ice retreat and advance and their relation to El Niño–southern oscillation and southern annular mode variability. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004269 (2008).
Hakkinen, S., Proshutinsky, A. & Ashik, I. Sea ice drift in the Arctic since the 1950s. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034791 (2008).
Rampal, P., Weiss, J. & Marsan, D. Positive trend in the mean speed and deformation rate of Arctic sea ice, 1979–2007. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JC005066 (2009).
Spreen, G., Kwok, R. & Menemenlis, D. Trends in Arctic sea ice drift and role of wind forcing: 1992–2009. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL048970 (2011).
Howell, S. E. L. et al. A comparison of arctic ocean sea ice export between nares strait and the canadian arctic archipelago. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 128, e2023JC019687 (2023).
Smedsrud, L. H., Halvorsen, M. H., Stroeve, J. C., Zhang, R. & Kloster, K. Fram Strait sea ice export variability and September Arctic sea ice extent over the last 80 years. Cryosphere 11, 65–79 (2017).
Kwok, R., Pang, S. S. & Kacimi, S. Sea ice drift in the southern ocean: regional patterns, variability, and trends. Elem. Sci. Anth. 5, 32 (2017).
Maksym, T. Arctic and antarctic sea ice change: contrasts, commonalities, and causes. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 11, 187–213 (2019).
Holland, P. R. & Kwok, R. Wind-driven trends in Antarctic sea-ice drift. Nat. Geosci. 5, 872–875 (2012).
Radionov, V. F., Bryazgin, N. N. & Alexandrov, E. I. The Snow Cover of the Arctic Basin. Report number: No. APLUWTR9701 (ed. Alexeev, G. V.) (1997).
Landy, J. C., Ehn, J. K. & Barber, D. G. Albedo feedback enhanced by smoother Arctic sea ice. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42, 714–10,720 (2015).
Kwok, R., Cunningham, G. F., Zwally, H. J. & Yi, D. ICESat over Arctic sea ice: interpretation of altimetric and reflectivity profiles. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003175 (2006).
Mchedlishvili, A., Lüpkes, C., Petty, A., Tsamados, M. & Spreen, G. New estimates of pan-Arctic sea ice–atmosphere neutral drag coefficients from ICESat-2 elevation data. Cryosphere 17, 4103–4131 (2023).
Krumpen, T. et al. Smoother sea ice with fewer pressure ridges in a more dynamic Arctic. Nat. Clim. Change 15, 66–72 (2025).
Toyota, T. et al. The interannual variability of sea ice area, thickness, and volume in the southern sea of okhotsk and its likely factors. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 127, e2022JC019069 (2022).
Toyota, T. in Comprehensive Cryospheric Science and Environmental Change Vol. 2 (eds Elias, S. A. & Kelly, R.) 308–327 (Elsevier, 2026).
Tin, T. & Jeffries, M. O. Sea-ice thickness and roughness in the Ross Sea, Antarctica. Ann. Glaciol. 33, 187–193 (2001).
Weeks, W. F., Ackley, S. F. & Govoni, J. Sea ice ridging in the Ross Sea, Antarctica, as compared with sites in the Arctic. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 94, 4984–4988 (1989).
Golledge, N. R. et al. Antarctic coastal polynyas in the global climate system. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 6, 126–139 (2025).
Smith, W. O. Jr. & Gordon, L. I. Hyperproductivity of the Ross Sea (Antarctica) polynya during austral spring. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24, 233–236 (1997).
Arrigo, K. R. & van Dijken, G. L. Phytoplankton dynamics within 37 Antarctic coastal polynya systems. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JC001739 (2003).
Tremblay, J.-E. & Smith, W. O. in Elsevier Oceanography Series Vol. 74 (eds Smith, W. O. & Barber, D. G.) 239–269 (Elsevier, 2007).
von Berg, L. et al. Weddell Sea phytoplankton blooms Modulated by Sea ice variability and polynya formation. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47, e2020GL087954 (2020).
Stirling, I. The biological importance of polynyas in the Canadian Arctic. Arctic 33, 303–315 (1980).
Stirling, I. The importance of polynyas, ice edges, and leads to marine mammals and birds. J. Mar. Syst. 10, 9–21 (1997).
Nihashi, S. & Ohshima, K. I. Circumpolar mapping of antarctic coastal polynyas and landfast sea ice: relationship and variability. J. Clim. 28, 3650–3670 (2015).
Massom, R. A., Harris, P. T., Michael, K. J. & Potter, M. J. The distribution and formative processes of latent-heat polynyas in East Antarctica. Ann. Glaciol. 27, 420–426 (1998).
Roberts, A., Allison, I. & Lytle, V. I. Sensible- and latent-heat-flux estimates over the mertz glacier polynya, east antarctica, from in-flight measurements. Ann. Glaciol. 33, 377–384 (2001).
Martin, S., Drucker, R., Kwok, R. & Holt, B. Estimation of the thin ice thickness and heat flux for the Chukchi Sea Alaskan coast polynya from Special Sensor Microwave/Imager data, 1990–2001. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002428 (2004).
Fiedler, E. K., Lachlan-Cope, T. A., Renfrew, I. A. & King, J. C. Convective heat transfer over thin ice covered coastal polynyas. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JC005797 (2010).
Martin, S. & Cavalieri, D. J. Contributions of the Siberian shelf polynyas to the Arctic Ocean intermediate and deep water. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 94, 12725–12738 (1989).
Martin, S., Drucker, R. & Yamashita, K. The production of ice and dense shelf water in the Okhotsk Sea polynyas. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 103, 27771–27782 (1998).
Ohshima, K. I. et al. Antarctic bottom water production by intense sea-ice formation in the cape darnley polynya. Nat. Geosci. 6, 235–240 (2013).
Ohshima, K. I., Nihashi, S. & Iwamoto, K. Global view of sea-ice production in polynyas and its linkage to dense/bottom water formation. Geosci. Lett. 3, 13 (2016).
Galbraith, P. S. Winter water masses in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003159 (2006).
Kashiwase, H., Ohshima, K. I. & Nihashi, S. Long-term variation in sea ice production and its relation to the intermediate water in the Sea of Okhotsk. Prog. Oceanogr. 126, 21–32 (2014).
Kern, S. Wintertime Antarctic coastal polynya area: 1992–2008. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038062 (2009).
Duffy, G. A., Montiel, F., Purich, A. & Fraser, C. I. Emerging long-term trends and interdecadal cycles in Antarctic polynyas. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2321595121 (2024).
Tamura, T., Ohshima, K. I. & Nihashi, S. Mapping of sea ice production for Antarctic coastal polynyas. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032903 (2008).
Campbell, E. C. et al. Antarctic offshore polynyas linked to Southern Hemisphere climate anomalies. Nature 570, 319–325 (2019).
Carsey, F. D. Microwave observation of the Weddell Polynya. Monthly Weather. Rev. 108, 2032–2044 (1980).
Roach, L. A. et al. Antarctic sea ice area in CMIP6. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47, e2019GL086729 (2020).
Melia, N., Haines, K. & Hawkins, E. Improved Arctic sea ice thickness projections using bias-corrected CMIP5 simulations. Cryosphere 9, 2237–2251 (2015).
Labe, Z., Magnusdottir, G. & Stern, H. Variability of Arctic sea ice thickness using PIOMAS and the CESM large ensemble. J. Clim. 31, 3233–3247 (2018).
Kwok, R. Observational assessment of Arctic Ocean sea ice motion, export, and thickness in CMIP3 climate simulations. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007004 (2011).
Koenigk, T., Devasthale, A. & Karlsson, K.-G. Summer Arctic sea ice albedo in CMIP5 models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14, 1987–1998 (2014).
Hezel, P. J., Fichefet, T. & Massonnet, F. Modeled Arctic sea ice evolution through 2300 in CMIP5 extended RCPs. Cryosphere 8, 1195–1204 (2014).
Smith, A., Jahn, A. & Wang, M. Seasonal transition dates can reveal biases in Arctic sea ice simulations. Cryosphere 14, 2977–2997 (2020).
Lebrun, M., Vancoppenolle, M., Madec, G. & Massonnet, F. Arctic sea-ice-free season projected to extend into autumn. Cryosphere 13, 79–96 (2019).
Wang, M. & Overland, J. E. Projected future duration of the sea-ice-free season in the Alaskan Arctic. Prog. Oceanogr. 136, 50–59 (2015).
Barnhart, K. R., Miller, C. R., Overeem, I. & Kay, J. E. Mapping the future expansion of Arctic open water. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 280–285 (2016).
Crawford, A., Stroeve, J., Smith, A. & Jahn, A. Arctic open-water periods are projected to lengthen dramatically by 2100. Commun. Earth Env. 2, 1–10 (2021).
Wang, M., Yang, Q., Overland, J. E. & Stabeno, P. Sea-ice cover timing in the Pacific Arctic: the present and projections to mid-century by selected CMIP5 models. Deep. Sea Res. Part. II: Topical Stud. Oceanogr. 152, 22–34 (2018).
Keen, A. et al. An inter-comparison of the mass budget of the Arctic sea ice in CMIP6 models. Cryosphere 15, 951–982 (2021).
Bintanja, R. et al. Strong future increases in Arctic precipitation variability linked to poleward moisture transport. Sci. Adv. 6, eaax6869 (2020).
Hezel, P. J., Zhang, X., Bitz, C. M., Kelly, B. P. & Massonnet, F. Projected decline in spring snow depth on Arctic sea ice caused by progressively later autumn open ocean freeze-up this century. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052794 (2012).
Blanchard-Wrigglesworth, E., Farrell, S. L., Newman, T. & Bitz, C. M. Snow cover on Arctic sea ice in observations and an Earth System Model. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42, 342–10,348 (2015).
Webster, M. A., DuVivier, A. K., Holland, M. M. & Bailey, D. A. Snow on Arctic Sea ice in a warming climate as simulated in CESM. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 126, e2020JC016308 (2021).
Li, H. L., Ke, C. Q., Shen, X. Y., Zhu, Q. H. & Cai, Y. An ensemble learning model reveals accelerated reductions in snow depth over Arctic sea ice under high-emission scenarios. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 129, e2023JD039910 (2024).
Chen, S. et al. Assessment of snow depth over Arctic Sea Ice in CMIP6 models using satellite data. Adv. Atmos. Sci. 38, 168–186 (2021).
Tedesco, L., Vichi, M. & Scoccimarro, E. Sea-ice algal phenology in a warmer Arctic. Sci. Adv. 5, eaav4830 (2019).
Li, S., Huang, G., Li, X., Liu, J. & Fan, G. An Assessment of the Antarctic sea ice mass budget simulation in CMIP6 historical experiment. Front. Earth Sci. 9, 649743 (2021).
Roeckner, E., Mauritsen, T., Esch, M. & Brokopf, R. Impact of melt ponds on Arctic sea ice in past and future climates as simulated by MPI-ESM. J. Adv. Modeling Earth Syst. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012MS000157 (2012).
Holland, M. M. & Landrum, L. Factors affecting projected Arctic surface shortwave heating and albedo change in coupled climate models. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 373, 20140162 (2015).
Karlsson, J. & Svensson, G. Consequences of poor representation of Arctic sea-ice albedo and cloud-radiation interactions in the CMIP5 model ensemble. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 4374–4379 (2013).
Kim, D. & Taylor, P. C. What factors explain the current arctic albedo and its future change? J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 131, e2025JD044070 (2026).
Ward, J. L. & Tandon, N. F. Why is summertime Arctic sea ice drift speed projected to decrease? Cryosphere 18, 995–1012 (2024).
Rampal, P., Weiss, J., Dubois, C. & Campin, J.-M. IPCC climate models do not capture Arctic sea ice drift acceleration: consequences in terms of projected sea ice thinning and decline. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007110 (2011).
Tandon, N. F., Kushner, P. J., Docquier, D., Wettstein, J. J. & Li, C. Reassessing sea ice drift and its relationship to long-term arctic sea ice loss in coupled climate models. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 123, 4338–4359 (2018).
Mohrmann, M., Heuzé, C. & Swart, S. Southern Ocean polynyas in CMIP6 models. Cryosphere 15, 4281–4313 (2021).
DuVivier, A. K. et al. Projections of winter polynyas and their biophysical impacts in the Ross Sea Antarctica. Clim. Dyn. 62, 989–1012 (2024).
Day, J. J., Hawkins, E. & Tietsche, S. Will Arctic sea ice thickness initialization improve seasonal forecast skill? Geophys. Res. Lett. 41, 7566–7575 (2014).
Holland, M. M., Landrum, L., Bailey, D. & Vavrus, S. Changing seasonal predictability of Arctic summer sea ice area in a warming climate. J. Clim. 32, 4963–4979 (2019).
Bushuk, M., Winton, M., Bonan, D. B., Blanchard-Wrigglesworth, E. & Delworth, T. L. A mechanism for the arctic sea ice spring predictability barrier. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47, e2020GL088335 (2020).
Massonnet, F. et al. Constraining projections of summer Arctic sea ice. Cryosphere 6, 1383–1394 (2012).
Zhou, X., Wang, B. & Huang, F. Evaluating sea ice thickness simulation is critical for projecting a summer ice-free Arctic Ocean. Environ. Res. Lett. 17, 114033 (2022).
Bunzel, F., Notz, D. & Pedersen, L. T. Retrievals of Arctic sea-ice volume and its trend significantly affected by interannual snow variability. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 751–11,759 (2018).
Sledd, A. & L’Ecuyer, T. S. A cloudier picture of ice-albedo feedback in CMIP6 models. Front. Earth Sci. 9, 769844 (2021).
Rotondo, J. F., Wieringa, M. M., Bitz, C. M., Clancy, R. P. & Cavallo, S. M. Sea ice albedo bounded data assimilation and its impact on modeling: a regional approach. Cryosphere 20, 1523–1542 (2026).
Riihelä, A., Jääskeläinen, E. & Kallio-Myers, V. Four decades of global surface albedo estimates in the third edition of the CM SAF cLoud, albedo and surface radiation (CLARA) climate data record. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 16, 1007–1028 (2024).
Shupe, M. D. & Rex, M. A year in the changing Arctic Sea Ice. Oceanography 35, 224–225 (2022).
Comiso, J. Bootstrap sea ice concentrations from Nimbus-7 SMMR and DMSP SSM/I-SSMIS, version 4. NASA Natl Snow Ice Data Cent. Distrib. Active Archive Cent. https://doi.org/10.5067/X5LG68MH013O (2023).
Environmental Working Group. Environmental working group Arctic meteorology and climate atlas (eds Fetterer, F. & Radionov, V. F.) https://doi.org/10.7265/N5MS3QNJ (NSIDC, 2000).
Holt, B. On-ice arctic sea ice thickness measurements by auger, core, and electromagnetic induction, from the late 1800s onward, version 2. NSIDC https://doi.org/10.7265/WZ0K-4P60 (2019).
Kacimi, S. & Kwok, R. ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2 L4 Monthly Arctic Snow Depth And Sea Ice Thickness, Version 1. NASA Natl Snow Ice Data Cent. Distrib. Active Archive Cent. https://doi.org/10.5067/04YYIKXW0GJS (2022).
Tschudi, M., Meier, W., Stewart, J., Fowler, C. & Maslanik, J. EASE-Grid Sea Ice Age, Version 4. NASA Natl Snow Ice Data Cent. Distrib. Active Archive Cent. https://doi.org/10.5067/UTAV7490FEPB (2019).
Tschudi, M., Meier, W., Stewart, J., Fowler, C. & Maslanik, J. Polar Pathfinder Daily 25 km EASE-Grid Sea Ice Motion Vectors, Version 4. NASA Natl Snow Ice Data Cent. Distrib. Active Archive Cent. https://doi.org/10.5067/INAWUWO7QH7B (2019).
Meier, W., Fetterer, F., Windnagel, A. & Stewart, S. NOAA/NSIDC Climate Data Record of Passive Microwave Sea Ice Concentration, Version 4. NSIDC https://doi.org/10.7265/EFMZ-2T65 (2021).