GBD 2019 Stroke Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of stroke and its risk factors, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet Neurol. 2021;20(10):795–820.


Google Scholar
 

Cushing H. Concerning a definite regulatory mechanism of vasomotor centre which controls blood pressure during cerebral compression. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1901;12:290–2.


Google Scholar
 

Cushing H. Peptic ulcers and the interbrain. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1932;55:1–34.


Google Scholar
 

Ziaka M, Exadaktylos A. The heart is at risk: understanding stroke-heart-brain interactions with focus on neurogenic stress cardiomyopathy-a review. J Stroke. 2023;25(1):39–54.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Busl KM, Bleck TP. Neurogenic pulmonary edema. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(8):1710–5.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Meyfroidt G, Baguley IJ, Menon DK. Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity: the storm after acute brain injury. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(9):721–9.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Podell JE, Miller SS, Jaffa MN, Pajoumand M, Armahizer M, Chen H, et al. Admission features associated with paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity after traumatic brain injury: a case-control study. Crit Care Med. 2021;49(10):e989–1000.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Jafari AA, Shah M, Mirmoeeni S, Hassani MS, Nazari S, Fielder T, et al. Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity during traumatic brain injury. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2022;212:107081.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Maesaka JK, Imbriano LJ. Cerebral salt wasting is a real cause of hyponatremia: pro. Kidney360. 2023;4(4):e437–40.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wijdicks EFM. Duck or rabbit? Cerebral salt wasting and SIADH in acute brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2023;39(1):260–3.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Adrogué HJ, Madias NE. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(16):1499–509.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wilson JE, Mart MF, Cunningham C, Shehabi Y, Girard TD, MacLullich AMJ, et al. Delirium. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2020;6(1):90.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Aita SL, Schuler KR, Isaak SL, Borgogna NC, Moncrief GG, Hollis SD, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder complicated by traumatic brain injury: a narrative review. SN Compr Clin Med. 2023;5(1):92.


Google Scholar
 

Ressler KJ, Berretta S, Bolshakov VY, Rosso IM, Meloni EG, Rauch SL, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder: clinical and translational neuroscience from cells to circuits. Nat Rev Neurol. 2022;18(5):273–88.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Smith DH, Johnson VE, Trojanowski JQ, Stewart W. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy – confusion and controversies. Nat Rev Neurol. 2019;15(3):179–83.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Izzy S, Chen PM, Tahir Z, Grashow R, Radmanesh F, Cote DJ, et al. Association of traumatic brain injury with the risk of developing chronic cardiovascular, endocrine, neurological, and psychiatric disorders. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(4):e229478.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Asim M, Amin F, El-Menyar A. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome: contemporary insights on the clinicopathological spectrum. Qatar Med J. 2020;2020(1):22.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Barea-Mendoza JA, Chico-Fernández M, Serviá-Goixart L, Quintana-Díaz M, García-Sáez I, Ballesteros-Sanz M, et al. Associated risk factors and impact in clinical outcomes of multiorgan failure in patients with TBI. Neurocrit Care. 2023;39(2):411–8.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Åkerlund CAI, Holst A, Stocchetti N, Steyerberg EW, Menon DK, Ercole A, et al. Clustering identifies endotypes of traumatic brain injury in an intensive care cohort: a CENTER-TBI study. Crit Care. 2022;26(1):228.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Krishnamoorthy V, Temkin N, Barber J, Foreman B, Komisarow J, Korley FK, et al. Association of early multiple organ dysfunction with clinical and functional outcomes over the year following traumatic brain injury: a transforming research and clinical knowledge in traumatic brain injury study. Crit Care Med. 2021;49(10):1769–78.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Battaglini D, De Rosa S, Godoy DA. Crosstalk between the nervous system and systemic organs in acute brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2024;40(1):337–48.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wongsripuemtet P, Ohnuma T, Minic Z, Vavilala MS, Miller JB, Laskowitz DT, et al. Early autonomic dysfunction in traumatic brain injury: an article review on the impact on multiple organ dysfunction. J Clin Med. 2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14020557.

Article 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Del Negro CA, Funk GD, Feldman JL. Breathing matters. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2018;19(6):351–67.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Manuel J, Färber N, Gerlach DA, Heusser K, Jordan J, Tank J, et al. Deciphering the neural signature of human cardiovascular regulation. Elife. 2020;9:e55316.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Morrison SF, Nakamura K. Central mechanisms for thermoregulation. Annu Rev Physiol. 2019;81:285–308.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ramirez JM, Severs LJ, Ramirez SC, Agosto-Marlin IM. Advances in cellular and integrative control of oxygen homeostasis within the central nervous system. J Physiol. 2018;596(15):3043–65.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Ichiki T, Augustine V, Oka Y. Neural populations for maintaining body fluid balance. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2019;57:134–40.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Bernal A, Zafra MA, Simón MJ, Mahía J. Sodium homeostasis, a balance necessary for life. Nutrients. 2023;15(2):395.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Barabási DL, Bianconi G, Bullmore E, Burgess M, Chung S, Eliassi-Rad T, et al. Neuroscience needs network science. J Neurosci. 2023;43(34):5989–95.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Bullmore E, Sporns O. Complex brain networks: graph theoretical analysis of structural and functional systems. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(3):186–98.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Girvan M, Newman MEJ. Community structure in social and biological networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99(12):7821–6.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Sporns O, Honey CJ, Kötter R. Identification and classification of hubs in brain networks. PLoS ONE. 2007;2(10):e1049.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Stam CJ, van Straaten ECW. The organization of physiological brain networks. Clin Neurophysiol. 2012;123(6):1067–87.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ravasz E, Barabási AL. Hierarchical organization in complex networks. Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys. 2003;67(2 Pt 2):026112.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Cannon WB. The wisdom of the body. New York, W.W. Norton, 1939.

Goldstein DS. How does homeostasis happen? Integrative physiological, systems biological, and evolutionary perspectives. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2019;316(4):R301–17.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Sennesh E, Theriault J, Brooks D, van de Meent JW, Barrett LF, Quigley KS. Interoception as modeling, allostasis as control. Biol Psychol. 2022;167:108242.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pereira A Jr. Developing the concepts of homeostasis, homeorhesis, allostasis, elasticity, flexibility and plasticity of brain function. NeuroSci. 2021;2(4):372–82.


Google Scholar
 

Bobba-Alves N, Juster RP, Picard M. The energetic cost of allostasis and allostatic load. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2022;146:105951.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Wang S, Qin L. Homeostatic medicine: a strategy for exploring health and disease. Curr Med. 2022;1(1):16.


Google Scholar
 

Schulkin J, Sterling P. Allostasis: a brain-centered, predictive mode of physiological regulation. Trends Neurosci. 2019;42(10):740–52.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Billman GE. Homeostasis: the underappreciated and far too often ignored central organizing principle of physiology. Front Physiol. 2020;11:200.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kleckner IR, Zhang J, Touroutoglou A, Chanes L, Xia C, Simmons WK, et al. Evidence for a large-scale brain system supporting allostasis and interoception in humans. Nat Hum Behav. 2017;1:0069.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Benarroch EE. The central autonomic network: functional organization, dysfunction, and perspective. Mayo Clin Proc. 1993;68(10):988–1001.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sklerov M, Dayan E, Browner N. Functional neuroimaging of the central autonomic network: recent developments and clinical implications. Clin Auton Res. 2019;29(6):555–66.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Thayer JF, Lane RD. A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. J Affect Disord. 2000;61(3):201–16.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Thayer JF, Hansen AL, Saus-Rose E, Johnsen BH. Heart rate variability, prefrontal neural function, and cognitive performance: the neurovisceral integration perspective on self-regulation, adaptation, and health. Ann Behav Med. 2009;37(2):141–53.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Porges SW. The polyvagal theory: new insights into adaptive reactions of the autonomic nervous system. Cleve Clin J Med. 2009;76(Suppl 2):S86-90.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Edlow BL, McNab JA, Witzel T, Kinney HC. The structural connectome of the human central homeostatic network. Brain Connect. 2016;6(3):187–200.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Al-Khazraji BK, Shoemaker JK. The human cortical autonomic network and volitional exercise in health and disease. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2018;43(11):1122–30.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Reisert M, Weiller C, Hosp JA. Displaying the autonomic processing network in humans – a global tractography approach. Neuroimage. 2021;231:117852.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Benarroch EE. Insular cortex: functional complexity and clinical correlations. Neurology. 2019;93(21):932–8.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Tadross JA, Steuernagel L, Dowsett GKC, Kentistou KA, Lundh S, Porniece M, et al. A comprehensive spatio-cellular map of the human hypothalamus. Nature. 2025;639(8055):708–16.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Eguíluz VM, Chialvo DR, Cecchi GA, Baliki M, Apkarian AV. Scale-free brain functional networks. Phys Rev Lett. 2005;94(1):018102.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Beissner F, Meissner K, Bär KJ, Napadow V. The autonomic brain: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis for central processing of autonomic function. J Neurosci. 2013;33(25):10503–11.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Valenza G, Duggento A, Passamonti L, Toschi N, Barbieri R. Resting state neural correlates of cardiac sympathetic dynamics in healthy subjects. IEEE EMBC. 2019;2019(2019):4330–3.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Valenza G, Passamonti L, Duggento A, Toschi N, Barbieri R. Uncovering complex central autonomic networks at rest: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study on complex cardiovascular oscillations. J R Soc Interface. 2020;17(164):20190878.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Quadt L, Critchley H, Nagai Y. Cognition, emotion, and the central autonomic network. Auton Neurosci. 2022;238:102948.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Goldstein DS. Stress and the “extended” autonomic system. Auton Neurosci. 2021;236:102889.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Fink G. Eighty years of stress. Nature. 2016;539(7628):175–6.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Goldstein DS. Linking the extended autonomic system with the homeostat theory: new perspectives about dysautonomias. J Pers Med. 2024;14(1):123.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Schiller M, Ben-Shaanan TL, Rolls A. Neuronal regulation of immunity: why, how and where? Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(1):20–36.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Chan KL, Poller WC, Swirski FK, Russo SJ. Central regulation of stress-evoked peripheral immune responses. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2023;24(10):591–604.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Zhou C, Zemanová L, Zamora G, Hilgetag CC, Kurths J. Hierarchical organization unveiled by functional connectivity in complex brain networks. Phys Rev Lett. 2006;97(23):238103.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Fornito A, Zalesky A, Breakspear M. The connectomics of brain disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015;16(3):159–72.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ge M, Ni X, Qi X, Chen S, Huang J, Kang Y, et al. Synthesizing brain-network-inspired interconnections for large-scale network-on-chips. ACM Trans Des Autom Electron Syst. 2021;27(1):1–30.


Google Scholar
 

Liao X, Vasilakos AV, He Y. Small-world human brain networks: perspectives and challenges. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;77:286–300.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Newman MEJ, Girvan M. Finding and evaluating community structure in networks. Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys. 2004;69(2 Pt 2):026113.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Gallen CL, D’Esposito M. Brain modularity: a biomarker of intervention-related plasticity. Trends Cogn Sci. 2019;23(4):293–304.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Pan RK, Sinha S. Modular networks emerge from multiconstraint optimization. Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys. 2007;76(4 Pt 2):045103.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sporns O, Betzel RF. Modular brain networks. Annu Rev Psychol. 2016;67:613–40.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Stam CJ. Modern network science of neurological disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2014;15(10):683–95.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ahn YY, Bagrow JP, Lehmann S. Link communities reveal multiscale complexity in networks. Nature. 2010;466(7307):761–4.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wig GS. Segregated systems of human brain networks. Trends Cogn Sci. 2017;21(12):981–96.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Godoy LD, Rossignoli MT, Delfino-Pereira P, Garcia-Cairasco N, de Lima Umeoka EH. A comprehensive overview on stress neurobiology: basic concepts and clinical implications. Front Behav Neurosci. 2018;12:127.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Ulrich-Lai YM, Herman JP. Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(6):397–409.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Guyenet PG, Stornetta RL, Bochorishvili G, Depuy SD, Burke PG, Abbott SB. C1 neurons: The body’s EMTs. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2013;305(3):R187-204.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Krohn F, Novello M, van der Giessen RS, De Zeeuw CI, Pel JJM, Bosman LWJ. The integrated brain network that controls respiration. Elife. 2023;12:e83654.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Benarroch EE. Brainstem integration of arousal, sleep, cardiovascular, and respiratory control. Neurology. 2018;91(21):958–66.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ruud J, Steculorum SM, Brüning JC. Neuronal control of peripheral insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. Nat Commun. 2017;8:15259.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Tracey KJ. Reflex control of immunity. Nat Rev Immunol. 2009;9(6):418–28.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Lowell BB. New neuroscience of homeostasis and drives for food, water, and salt. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(5):459–71.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

van den Heuvel MP, Sporns O. Network hubs in the human brain. Trends Cogn Sci. 2013;17(12):683–96.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Loewy AD. Descending pathways to sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons. J Auton Nerv Syst. 1981;3(2–4):265–75.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ondicova K, Mravec B. Multilevel interactions between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: a minireview. Endocr Regul. 2010;44(2):69–75.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Elfaki LA, Sharma B, Meusel LC, So I, Colella B, Wheeler AL, et al. Examining anterior prefrontal cortex resting-state functional connectivity patterns associated with depressive symptoms in chronic moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol. 2025;16:1541520.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Stern JE. Neuroendocrine-autonomic integration in the paraventricular nucleus: novel roles for dendritically released neuropeptides. J Neuroendocrinol. 2015;27(6):487–97.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Simmons S, Langlois LD, Oyola MG, Gouty S, Wu TJ, Nugent FS. Blast-induced mild traumatic brain injury alterations of corticotropin-releasing factor neuronal activity in the mouse hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Front Synaptic Neurosci. 2021;13:804898.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Watts DJ, Strogatz SH. Collective dynamics of “small-world” networks. Nature. 1998;393(6684):440–2.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Bassett DS, Bullmore E. Small-world brain networks. Neuroscientist. 2006;12(6):512–23.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Bassett DS, Bullmore ET. Small-world brain networks revisited. Neuroscientist. 2017;23(5):499–516.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Chen Y, Wang S, Hilgetag CC, Zhou C. Trade-off between multiple constraints enables simultaneous formation of modules and hubs in neural systems. PLoS Comput Biol. 2013;9(3):e1002937.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Bertolero MA, Thomas Yeo BT, D’Esposito M. The modular and integrative functional architecture of the human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(49):E6798–807.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Seguin C, Sporns O, Zalesky A. Brain network communication: concepts, models and applications. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2023;24(9):557–74.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Bullmore E, Sporns O. The economy of brain network organization. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012;13(5):336–49.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Chen Y, Wang S, Hilgetag CC, Zhou C. Features of spatial and functional segregation and integration of the primate connectome revealed by trade-off between wiring cost and efficiency. PLoS Comput Biol. 2017;13(9):e1005776.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Deco G, Tononi G, Boly M, Kringelbach ML. Rethinking segregation and integration: contributions of whole-brain modelling. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015;16(7):430–9.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Lynn CW, Bassett DS. The physics of brain network structure, function and control. Nat Rev Phys. 2019;1(5):318–32.


Google Scholar
 

van den Heuvel MP, Sporns O. A cross-disorder connectome landscape of brain dysconnectivity. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2019;20(7):435–46.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Lyon AR, Citro R, Schneider B, Morel O, Ghadri JR, Templin C, et al. Pathophysiology of takotsubo syndrome: JACC state-of-the-art review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2021;77(7):902–21.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ancona F, Bertoldi LF, Ruggieri F, Cerri M, Magnoni M, Beretta L, et al. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy and neurogenic stunned myocardium: similar albeit different. Eur Heart J. 2016;37(37):2830–2.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Tavazzi G, Zanierato M, Via G, Iotti GA, Procaccio F. Are neurogenic stress cardiomyopathy and takotsubo different syndromes with common pathways?: etiopathological insights on dysfunctional hearts. JACC Heart Fail. 2017;5(12):940–2.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Brame AL, Singer M. Stressing the obvious? An allostatic look at critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2010;38(Suppl 10):S600–7.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Cuesta JM, Singer M. The stress response and critical illness: a review. Crit Care Med. 2012;40(12):3283–9.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Fisher JP, Young CN, Fadel PJ. Central sympathetic overactivity: maladies and mechanisms. Auton Neurosci. 2009;148(1–2):5–15.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Schmidt JM, Crimmins M, Lantigua H, Fernandez A, Zammit C, Falo C, et al. Prolonged elevated heart rate is a risk factor for adverse cardiac events and poor outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care. 2014;20(3):390–8.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Rachfalska N, Putowski Z, Krzych ŁJ. Distant organ damage in acute brain injury. Brain Sci. 2020;10(12):1019.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Hasegawa Y, Uchikawa H, Kajiwara S, Morioka M. Central sympathetic nerve activation in subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurochem. 2022;160(1):34–50.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Baguley IJ, Heriseanu RE, Felmingham KL, Cameron ID. Dysautonomia and heart rate variability following severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2006;20(4):437–44.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Prasad Hrishi A, Ruby Lionel K, Prathapadas U. Head rules over the heart: cardiac manifestations of cerebral disorders. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2019;23(7):329–35.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Stam CJ. Hub overload and failure as a final common pathway in neurological brain network disorders. Netw Neurosci. 2024;8(1):1–23.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Achard S, Delon-Martin C, Vértes PE, Renard F, Schenck M, Schneider F, et al. Hubs of brain functional networks are radically reorganized in comatose patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(50):20608–13.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Lv LQ, Hou LJ, Yu MK, Qi XQ, Chen HR, Chen JX, et al. Prognostic influence and magnetic resonance imaging findings in paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity after severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2010;27(11):1945–50.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Podell JE, Moffet EW, Bodanapally UK, Pajoumand M, Silva LM, Hu P, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging lesions associated with paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity after traumatic brain injury. Neurotrauma Rep. 2024;5(1):317–29.


Google Scholar
 

Brown HW, Plum F. The neurologic basis of cheyne-stokes respiration. Am J Med. 1961;30(6):849–60.


Google Scholar
 

Mador MJ, Tobin MJ. Apneustic breathing. A characteristic feature of brainstem compression in achondroplasia? Chest. 1990;97(4):877–83.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Summ O, Hassanpour N, Mathys C, Groß M. Disordered breathing in severe cerebral illness – towards a conceptual framework. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2022;300:103869.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Dobson GP, Morris JL, Letson HL. Traumatic brain injury: symptoms to systems in the 21st century. Brain Res. 2024;1845:149271.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Robba C, Wahlster S, Newcombe V. Update on acute brain injury. Intensive Care Med. 2025;51(10):1924–6.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hill CS, Coleman MP, Menon DK. Traumatic axonal injury: mechanisms and translational opportunities. Trends Neurosci. 2016;39(5):311–24.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Jarrahi A, Braun M, Ahluwalia M, Gupta RV, Wilson M, Munie S, et al. Revisiting traumatic brain injury: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic interventions. Biomedicines. 2020;8(10):389.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Shi K, Tian DC, Li ZG, Ducruet AF, Lawton MT, Shi FD. Global brain inflammation in stroke. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(11):1058–66.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sabet N, Soltani Z, Khaksari M. Multipotential and systemic effects of traumatic brain injury. J Neuroimmunol. 2021;357:577619.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sammons M, Popescu MC, Chi J, Liberles SD, Gogolla N, Rolls A. Brain-body physiology: local, reflex, and central communication. Cell. 2024;187(21):5877–90.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Busl KM, Bogossian EG, Claassen J, Helbok R, Provencio JJ, Robba C, et al. Beyond the bleed: complications after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Pathophysiology, clinical implications, and management strategies: a review. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):414.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Zygun DA, Doig CJ, Gupta AK, Whiting G, Nicholas C, Shepherd E, et al. Non-neurological organ dysfunction in neurocritical care. J Crit Care. 2003;18(4):238–44.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Zygun DA, Kortbeek JB, Fick GH, Laupland KB, Doig CJ. Non-neurologic organ dysfunction in severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(3):654–60.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Astarabadi M, Khurrum M, Asmar S, Bible L, Chehab M, Castanon L, et al. The impact of non-neurological organ dysfunction on outcomes in severe isolated traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2020;89(2):405–10.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Piek J, Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, van Berkum-Clark M, Klauber MR, Blunt BA, et al. Extracranial complications of severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1992;77(6):901–7.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Mascia L, Sakr Y, Pasero D, Payen D, Reinhart K, Vincent JL. Extracranial complications in patients with acute brain injury: a post-hoc analysis of the SOAP study. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34(4):720–7.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Alberti A, Agnelli G, Caso V, Venti M, Acciarresi M, D’Amore C, et al. Non-neurological complications of acute stroke: frequency and influence on clinical outcome. Intern Emerg Med. 2011;6(Suppl 1):119–23.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Corral L, Javierre CF, Ventura JL, Marcos P, Herrero JI, Mañez R. Impact of non-neurological complications in severe traumatic brain injury outcome. Crit Care. 2012;16(2):R44.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Goyal K, Hazarika A, Khandelwal A, Sokhal N, Bindra A, Kumar N, et al. Non- neurological complications after traumatic brain injury: a prospective observational study. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2018;22(9):632–8.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kumaria A, Kirkman MA, Scott RA, Dow GR, Leggate AJ, Macarthur DC, et al. A reappraisal of the pathophysiology of cushing ulcer: a narrative review. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2024;36(3):211–7.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Šedý J, Kuneš J, Zicha J. Pathogenetic mechanisms of neurogenic pulmonary edema. J Neurotrauma. 2015;32(15):1135–45.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Tuzi S, Kranawetter B, Moerer O, Rohde V, Mielke D, Malinova V. Logistic organ dysfunction system as an early risk stratification tool after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):27639.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Brown EN, Lydic R, Schiff ND. General anesthesia, sleep, and coma. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(27):2638–50.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Hu Y, Wang Y, Zhang L, Luo M, Wang Y. Neural network mechanisms underlying general anesthesia: cortical and subcortical nuclei. Neurosci Bull. 2024;40(12):1995–2011.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hawryluk GWJ, Aguilera S, Buki A, Bulger E, Citerio G, Cooper DJ, et al. A management algorithm for patients with intracranial pressure monitoring: the Seattle International Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Consensus Conference (SISBICC). Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(12):1783–94.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Varley TF, Sporns O, Puce A, Beggs J. Differential effects of propofol and ketamine on critical brain dynamics. PLoS Comput Biol. 2020;16(12):e1008418.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Varley TF, Denny V, Sporns O, Patania A. Topological analysis of differential effects of ketamine and propofol anaesthesia on brain dynamics. R Soc Open Sci. 2021;8(6):201971.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Grände PO. The “lund concept” for the treatment of severe head trauma–physiological principles and clinical application. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32(10):1475–84.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Réen L, Cederberg D, Radman A, Marklund N, Visse E, Siesjö P. Low morbidity and mortality in children with severe traumatic brain injury treated according to the lund concept: a population-based study. J Neurotrauma. 2023;40(7–8):720–9.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Khalili H, Ahl R, Paydar S, Sjolin G, Cao Y, Abdolrahimzadeh Fard H, et al. Beta-blocker therapy in severe traumatic brain injury: a prospective randomized controlled trial. World J Surg. 2020;44(6):1844–53.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Nordness MF, Maiga AW, Wilson LD, Koyama T, Rivera EL, Rakhit S, et al. Effect of propranolol and clonidine after severe traumatic brain injury: a pilot randomized clinical trial. Crit Care. 2023;27(1):228.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Alshaya AI, Aldhaeefi M, Alodhaiyan N, Alqahtani M, Althewaibi S, Alshahrani W, et al. Clonidine safety and effectiveness in the management of suspected paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity post-traumatic brain injury: A retrospective cohort study. Sci Prog. 2023;106(4):368504231201298.

CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Mansour MS, Seidy NSE, Fathey YI. Evaluation of beta-blocker effects on patients with traumatic brain injury: interventional double-blinded randomized controlled trial. Ain Shams J Anesthesiol. 2023;15(1):65.


Google Scholar
 

Hart S, Lannon M, Chen A, Martyniuk A, Sharma S, Engels PT. Beta blockers in traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2023;8(1):e001051.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Borgmann D, Rigoux L, Kuzmanovic B, Edwin Thanarajah S, Münte TF, Fenselau H, et al. Technical note: modulation of fMRI brainstem responses by transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation. Neuroimage. 2021;244:118566.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Lee MC, Bartuska A, Chen J, Kim RK, Jaradeh S, Mihm F. Stellate ganglion block catheter for paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity: calming the “neuro-storm.” Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2023;48(10):522–5.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sharp DJ, Scott G, Leech R. Network dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. Nat Rev Neurol. 2014;10(3):156–66.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Petrella JR. Use of graph theory to evaluate brain networks: a clinical tool for a small world? Radiology. 2011;259(2):317–20.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Filippi M, van den Heuvel MP, Fornito A, He Y, Hulshoff Pol HE, Agosta F, et al. Assessment of system dysfunction in the brain through MRI-based connectomics. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12(12):1189–99.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pandit AS, Expert P, Lambiotte R, Bonnelle V, Leech R, Turkheimer FE, et al. Traumatic brain injury impairs small-world topology. Neurology. 2013;80(20):1826–33.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Swanson LW, Hahn JD, Sporns O. Neural network architecture of a mammalian brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2024;121(39):e2413422121.

CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Swanson LW, Hahn JD, Sporns O. The intrinsic neuronal network of the central nervous system and its modular (subsystem) architecture in a mammal. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2025;122(40):e2519768122.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Fukushima M, Betzel RF, He Y, van den Heuvel MP, Zuo XN, Sporns O. Structure-function relationships during segregated and integrated network states of human brain functional connectivity. Brain Struct Funct. 2018;223(3):1091–106.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Thayer JF, Lane RD. Claude Bernard and the heart-brain connection: further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2009;33(2):81–8.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

De Raedt S, De Vos A, De Keyser J. Autonomic dysfunction in acute ischemic stroke: an underexplored therapeutic area? J Neurol Sci. 2015;348(1–2):24–34.

PubMed 

Google Scholar