Liu, Y. et al. Promises and prospects of two-dimensional transistors. Nature 591, 43–53 (2021).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pal, A. et al. Three-dimensional transistors with two-dimensional semiconductors for future CMOS scaling. Nat. Electron. 7, 1147–1157 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Shen, P. C. et al. Ultralow contact resistance between semimetal and monolayer semiconductors. Nature 593, 211–217 (2021).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Jiang, J., Xu, L., Qiu, C. & Peng, L.-M. Ballistic two-dimensional InSe transistors. Nature 616, 470–475 (2023).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Zhao, B. et al. Gate-driven band modulation hyperdoping for high-performance p-type 2D semiconductor transistors. Science 388, 1183–1188 (2025).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Jayachandran, D. et al. Three-dimensional integration of two-dimensional field-effect transistors. Nature 625, 276–281 (2024).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, S. et al. Two-dimensional devices and integration towards the silicon lines. Nat. Mater. 21, 1225–1239 (2022).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Li, T. et al. Epitaxial growth of wafer-scale molybdenum disulfide semiconductor single crystals on sapphire. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 1201–1207 (2021).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Fu, J.-H. et al. Oriented lateral growth of two-dimensional materials on c-plane sapphire. Nat. Nanotechnol. 18, 1289–1294 (2023).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, M. et al. Single-crystal, large-area, fold-free monolayer graphene. Nature 596, 519–524 (2021).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, J. Y., Ju, X., Ang, K. W. & Chi, D. Van der Waals layer transfer of 2D materials for monolithic 3D electronic system integration: review and outlook. ACS Nano 17, 1831–1844 (2023).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Guo, H.-W., Hu, Z., Liu, Z.-B. & Tian, J.-G. Stacking of 2D materials. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2007810 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Watson, A. J., Lu, W., Guimarães, M. H. D. & Stöhr, M. Transfer of large-scale two-dimensional semiconductors: challenges and developments. 2D Mater. 8, 032001 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, J. Understanding the electric double-layer structure, capacitance, and charging dynamics. Chem. Rev. 122, 10821–10859 (2022).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Agmo Hernández, V. An overview of surface forces and the DLVO theory. ChemTexts 9, 10 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Itano, M., Kern, F. W., Miyashita, M. & Ohmi, T. Particle removal from silicon wafer surface in wet cleaning process. IEEE Trans. Semicond. Manuf. 6, 258–267 (1993).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Israelachvili, J. N. Intermolecular and Surface Forces (Academic Press, 2011).

Butt, H.-J. & Kappl, M. Surface and Interfacial Forces 2nd edn (Wiley, 2018).

Muneer, R., Rehan Hashmet, M. & Pourafshary, P. Fine migration control in sandstones: surface force analysis and application of DLVO theory. ACS Omega 5, 31624–31639 (2020).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Huang, S. et al. Fabrication of ultrathin MoS2 nanosheets and application on adsorption of organic pollutants and heavy metals. Processes 8, 504 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Salomão, R. & Brandi, J. Filamentous alumina–chitosan porous structures produced by gelcasting. Ceram. Int. 39, 7751–7757 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Huang, C.-J., Wang, L.-C., Liu, C.-Y., Chiang, A. S. T. & Chang, Y.-C. Natural zwitterionic organosulfurs as surface ligands for antifouling and responsive properties. Biointerphases 9, 029010 (2014).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Zuccaro, L., Krieg, J., Desideri, A., Kern, K. & Balasubramanian, K. Tuning the isoelectric point of graphene by electrochemical functionalization. Sci. Rep. 5, 11794 (2015).

Article 
ADS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Lefèvre, G. et al. Determination of isoelectric points of metals and metallic alloys by adhesion of latex particles. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 337, 449–455 (2009).

Article 
ADS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Xiong, C. & Tu, W. Synthesis of water-dispersible boron nitride nanoparticles. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2014, 3010–3015 (2014).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

McPhail, M. R., Sells, J. A., He, Z. & Chusuei, C. C. Charging nanowalls: adjusting the carbon nanotube isoelectric point via surface functionalization. J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 14102–14109 (2009).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kallay, N., Torbic, Z., Golic, M. & Matijevic, E. Determination of the isoelectric points of several metals by an adhesion method. J. Phys. Chem. 95, 7028–7032 (1991).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Xia, Z., Rozyyev, V., Mane, A. U., Elam, J. W. & Darling, S. B. Surface zeta potential of ALD-grown metal-oxide films. Langmuir 37, 11618–11624 (2021).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Bišćan, J., Kosec, M. & Kallay, N. The isoelectric conditions of the constituents of the complex oxide Pb(Zr,Ti)O3. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 79, 217–226 (1993).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bišćan, J., Kallay, N. & Smolić, T. Determination of iso-electric point of silicon nitride by adhesion method. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 165, 115–123 (2000).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Franks, G. V. & Meagher, L. The isoelectric points of sapphire crystals and alpha-alumina powder. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 214, 99–110 (2003).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, M., Salvador, P. A. & Rohrer, G. S. Influence of pH and surface orientation on the photochemical reactivity of SrTiO3. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 23617–23626 (2020).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Collins, J. L. et al. Electrical and chemical characterizations of hafnium (IV) oxide films for biological lab-on-a-chip devices. Thin Solid Films 662, 60–69 (2018).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kosmulski, M. Attempt to determine pristine points of zero charge of Nb2O5, Ta2O5, and HfO2. Langmuir 13, 6315–6320 (1997).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zielińska-Jurek, A. et al. Design and application of magnetic photocatalysts for water treatment. The effect of particle charge on surface functionality. Catalysts 7, 360 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hu, Q., Weber, C., Cheng, H. W., Renner, F. U. & Valtiner, M. Anion layering and steric hydration repulsion on positively charged surfaces in aqueous electrolytes. Chem. Phys. Chem. 18, 3056–3065 (2017).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, Z. et al. Understanding the aqueous stability and filtration capability of MoS2 membranes. Nano Lett. 17, 7289–7298 (2017).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Aitken, Z. H. & Huang, R. Effects of mismatch strain and substrate surface corrugation on morphology of supported monolayer graphene. J. Appl. Phys. 107, 123531 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hunter, R. J. Zeta Potential in Colloid Science: Principles and Applications Vol. 2 (Academic Press, 2013).

Liu, H., Steigerwald, M. L. & Nuckolls, C. Electrical double layer catalyzed wet-etching of silicon dioxide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 17034–17035 (2009).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Li, W. et al. Approaching the quantum limit in two-dimensional semiconductor contacts. Nature 613, 274–279 (2023).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Jiang, J. et al. Yttrium-doping-induced metallization of molybdenum disulfide for ohmic contacts in two-dimensional transistors. Nat. Electron. 7, 545–556 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Ali, U., Karim, K. J. B. A. & Buang, N. A. A review of the properties and applications of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). Polym. Rev. 55, 678–705 (2015).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhuang, B., Li, S., Li, S. & Yin, J. Ways to eliminate PMMA residues on graphene—superclean graphene. Carbon 173, 609–636 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lu, A. Y. et al. Unraveling the correlation between Raman and photoluminescence in monolayer MoS2 through machine-learning models. Adv. Mater. 34, e2202911 (2022).

Article 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Dresselhaus, M. S., Jorio, A., Souza Filho, A. G. & Saito, R. Defect characterization in graphene and carbon nanotubes using Raman spectroscopy. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 368, 5355–5377 (2010).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Zheng, X. et al. Utilizing complex oxide substrates to control carrier concentration in large-area monolayer MoS2 films. Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 093103 (2021).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Das, S. et al. Transistors based on two-dimensional materials for future integrated circuits. Nat. Electron. 4, 786–799 (2021).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chang, H.-Y., Zhu, W. & Akinwande, D. On the mobility and contact resistance evaluation for transistors based on MoS2 or two-dimensional semiconducting atomic crystals. Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, 113504 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Meng, W. et al. Three-dimensional monolithic micro-LED display driven by atomically thin transistor matrix. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 1231–1236 (2021).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, Y. et al. Wafer-scale integration of highly uniform and scalable MoS2 transistors. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 37146–37153 (2017).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Tang, J. et al. Low power flexible monolayer MoS2 integrated circuits. Nat. Commun. 14, 3633 (2023).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kwon, H. et al. Monolayer MoS2 field-effect transistors patterned by photolithography for active matrix pixels in organic light-emitting diodes. npj 2D Mater. Appl. 3, 9 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, H. et al. Controlled adhesion of ice—toward ultraclean 2D materials. Adv. Mater. 35, 2210503 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lu, Z. et al. Universal transfer and stacking of chemical vapor deposition grown two-dimensional atomic layers with water-soluble polymer mediator. ACS Nano 10, 5237–5242 (2016).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ghosh, S. et al. Integration of epitaxial monolayer MX2 channels on 300mm wafers via Collective-Die-To-Wafer (CoD2W) transfer. In Proc. 2023 IEEE Symposium on VLSI Technology and Circuits (VLSI Technology and Circuits) 1–2 (IEEE 2023).

Li, W. et al. Uniform and ultrathin high-κ gate dielectrics for two-dimensional electronic devices. Nat. Electron. 2, 563–571 (2019).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Mondal, A. et al. Low ohmic contact resistance and high on/off ratio in transition metal dichalcogenides field-effect transistors via residue-free transfer. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 34–43 (2024).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Chung, Y.-Y. et al. First demonstration of GAA monolayer–MoS2 nanosheet nFET with 410 μA μm ID 1 V VD at 40 nm gate length. In Proc. 2022 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 34–35 (IEEE, 2022).

Mannix, A. J. et al. Robotic four-dimensional pixel assembly of van der Waals solids. Nat. Nanotechnol. 17, 361–366 (2022).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Shi, Y. et al. Superior electrostatic control in uniform monolayer MoS2 scaled transistors via in-situ surface smoothening. In Proc. 2021 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 37.1.1–37.1.4 (IEEE, 2021).

Penumatcha, A. et al. High mobility TMD NMOS and PMOS transistors and GAA architecture for ultimate CMOS scaling. In 2023 International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 1–4 (IEEE, 2023).

Hwang, S. et al. A facile approach towards Wrinkle-Free transfer of 2D-MoS2 films via hydrophilic Si3N4 substrate. Appl. Surf. Sci. 604, 154523 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dai, Z., Lu, N., Liechti, K. M. & Huang, R. Mechanics at the interfaces of 2D materials: challenges and opportunities. Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 24, 100837 (2020).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, R., Gan, L., Ou, X., Zhang, Q. & Luo, Z. Detaching graphene from copper substrate by oxidation-assisted water intercalation. Carbon 98, 138–143 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Yuan, G. et al. Proton-assisted growth of ultra-flat graphene films. Nature 577, 204–208 (2020).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Kang, K. et al. Layer-by-layer assembly of two-dimensional materials into wafer-scale heterostructures. Nature 550, 229–233 (2017).

Article 
ADS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Ma, D. et al. A universal etching-free transfer of MoS2 films for applications in photodetectors. Nano Res. 8, 3662–3672 (2015).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Schranghamer, T. F. et al. Review and comparison of layer transfer methods for two-dimensional materials for emerging applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 50, 11032–11054 (2021).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Sanchez, D. A. et al. Mechanics of spontaneously formed nanoblisters trapped by transferred 2D crystals. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 115, 7884–7889 (2018).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Kilpatrick, J. I., Loh, S. H. & Jarvis, S. P. Directly probing the effects of ions on hydration forces at interfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 2628–2634 (2013).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Zhao, Y. et al. Large-area transfer of two-dimensional materials free of cracks, contamination and wrinkles via controllable conformal contact. Nat. Commun. 13, 4409 (2022).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, X., Huang, K., Zhao, M., Li, F. & Liu, H. A modified wrinkle-free MoS2 film transfer method for large area high mobility field-effect transistor. Nanotechnology 31, 055707 (2020).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, J., Lee, M. K., Park, S.-M., Hong, S. & Kim, N. A study on the mechanical properties and deformation behavior of injection molded PMMA-TSP laminated composite. Korea Aust. Rheol. J. 24, 23–33 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, L. et al. Thermal expansion coefficient of monolayer molybdenum disulfide using micro-Raman spectroscopy. Nano Lett. 19, 4745–4751 (2019).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Zhu, W. et al. Structure and electronic transport in graphene wrinkles. Nano Lett. 12, 3431–3436 (2012).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Schroder, D. K. Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization (Wiley, 2006).

Nicollian, E. H. & Goetzberger, A. The Si–SiO2 interface—electrical properties as determined by the metal-insulator-silicon conductance technique. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 46, 1055–1133 (1967).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, Y. et al. Interface states in gate stack of carbon nanotube array transistors. ACS Nano 18, 19086–19098 (2024).

Article 
CAS 
PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Castagne, R. & Vapaile, A. Description of the SiO2–Si interface properties by means of very low frequency MOS capacitance measurements. Surf. Sci. 28, 157–193 (1971).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Seidel, H., Csepregi, L., Heuberger, A. & Baumgärtel, H. Anisotropic etching of crystalline silicon in alkaline solutions: I. Orientation dependence and behavior of passivation layers. J. Electrochem. Soc. 137, 3612–3626 (1990).

Article 
ADS 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Biswas, K. & Kal, S. Etch characteristics of KOH, TMAH and dual doped TMAH for bulk micromachining of silicon. Microelectron. J. 37, 519–525 (2006).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar