Abascal, E., Gómez-Coma, L., Ortiz, I. & Ortiz, A. Global diagnosis of nitrate pollution in groundwater and review of removal technologies. Sci. Total Environ. 810, 152233 (2022).
Ward, M. H. et al. Drinking water nitrate and human health: An updated review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15, 1557 (2018).
Temkin, A., Evans, S., Manidis, T., Campbell, C. & Naidenko, O. V. Exposure-based assessment and economic valuation of adverse birth outcomes and cancer risk due to nitrate in United States drinking water. Environ. Res. 176, 108442 (2019).
Craswell, E. Fertilizers and nitrate pollution of surface and ground water: an increasingly pervasive global problem. SN Appl. Sci. 3, 518 (2021).
Liu, X. et al. Impact of groundwater nitrogen legacy on water quality. Nat. Sustain. 7, 891–900 (2024).
Menegat, S., Ledo, A. & Tirado, R. Greenhouse gas emissions from global production and use of nitrogen synthetic fertilisers in agriculture. Sci. Rep. 12, 1–13 (2022).
Weber, J., Keeble, J., Abraham, N. L., Beerling, D. J. & Martin, M. V. Global agricultural N2O emission reduction strategies deliver climate benefits with minimal impact on stratospheric O3 recovery. NPJ Clim. Atmos. Sci. 7, 121 (2024).
Tian, H. et al. Global nitrous oxide budget (1980–2020). Earth Syst. Sci. Data 16, 2543–2604 (2024).
Ludemann, C. I., Gruere, A., Heffer, P. & Dobermann, A. Global data on fertilizer use by crop and by country. Sci. Data 9, 501 (2022).
Tei, F., De Neve, S., de Haan, J. & Kristensen, H. L. Nitrogen management of vegetable crops. Agric. Water Manag. 240, 106316 (2020).
Hopmans, J. W. & Bristow, K. L. Current capabilities and future needs of root water and nutrient uptake modeling. Adv. Agron. 77, 103–183 (2002).
Griffiths, M. & York, L. M. Targeting root ion uptake kinetics to increase plant productivity and nutrient use efficiency. Plant Physiol. 182, 1854–1868 (2020).
Sheriff, G. Efficient waste? Why farmers over-apply nutrients and the implications for policy design. Rev. Agric. Econ. 27, 542–557 (2005).
Schaub, S. & El Benni, N. How do price (risk) changes influence farmers’ preferences to reduce fertilizer application? Agric. Econ. 55, 365–383 (2024).
Geisseler, D., Lazicki, P. & Horwath, W. R. California Fertilization Guidelines. http://geisseler.ucdavis.edu/Guidelines/Home.html.
Martinez-Feria, R. A. & Basso, B. Unstable crop yields reveal opportunities for site-specific adaptations to climate variability. Sci. Rep. 10, 2885 (2020).
Spackman, J. A., Fernandez, F. G., Coulter, J. A., Kaiser, D. E. & Paiao, G. Soil texture and precipitation influence optimal time of nitrogen fertilization for corn. Agron. J. 111, 2018–2030 (2019).
Wang, E. et al. The uncertainty of crop yield projections is reduced by improved temperature response functions. Nat. Plants 3, 1–13 (2017).
Miguel de Paz, J., Ramos, C. & Visconti, F. Critical nitrogen dilution curve and dry matter production parameters for several Mediterranean vegetables. Sci. Hortic. 303, (2022).
Cerasola, V. A. et al. Exploring dynamic nitrogen (N) fertigation guided by multispectral sensors: a sustainable optimization of N fertilization in processing tomato. Sci. Hortic. 345, 114124 (2025).
Samborski, S. M., Tremblay, N. & Fallon, E. Strategies to make use of plant sensors-based diagnostic information for nitrogen recommendations. Agron. J. 101, 800–816 (2009).
Padilla, F. M., Farneselli, M., Gianquinto, G., Tei, F. & Thompson, R. B. Monitoring nitrogen status of vegetable crops and soils for optimal nitrogen management. Agric. Water Manag. 241, 106356 (2020).
Carter, M. R. & Gregorich, E. G. Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis (CRC Press, 2007).
Schmidhalter, U. rs Development of a quick on-farm test to determine nitrate levels in soil. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 168, 432–438 (2005).
Hartz, T. K., Bendixen, W. E. & Wierdsma, L. The value of presidedress soil nitrate testing as a nitrogen management tool in irrigated vegetable production. HortScience 35, 651–656 (2000).
Kurtzman, D., Kanner, B., Levy, Y., Nitsan, I. & Bar-Tal, A. Maintaining intensive agriculture overlying aquifers using the threshold nitrate root-uptake phenomenon. J. Environ. Qual. 50, 979–989 (2021).
Mahlangu, R. I. S., Maboko, M. M., Sivakumar, D., Soundy, P. & Jifon, J. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth, yield and quality response to nitrogen fertilization in a non-circulating hydroponic system. J. Plant Nutr. 39, 1766–1775 (2016).
Granados, M. R., Thompson, R. B., Fernández, M. D., Martínez-Gaitán, C. & Gallardo, M. Prescriptive-corrective nitrogen and irrigation management of fertigated and drip-irrigated vegetable crops using modeling and monitoring approaches. Agric. Water Manag. 119, 121–134 (2013).
Savvas, D. et al. Improvement and validation of a decision support system to maintain optimal nutrient levels in crops grown in closed-loop soilless systems. Agric. Water Manag. 285, 108373 (2023).
Kim, J. S. et al. Closed hydroponic nutrient solution management using multiple water sources. J. Biosyst. Eng. 48, 215–224 (2023).
Jakobsen, Ø. M., Kristiansen, K. A., Schiefloe, M. & Jost, A. I. K. Monitoring and control of nitrate in closed-loop hydroponics. Acta Hortic. 1426, 283–292 (2025).
Yeshno, E., Arnon, S. & Dahan, O. Real-time monitoring of nitrate in soils as a key for optimization of agricultural productivity and prevention of groundwater pollution. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 23, 3997–4010 (2019).
Tuli, A., Wei, J.-B., Shaw, B. D. & Hopmans, J. W. In situ monitoring of soil solution nitrate: proof of concept. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 73, 501–509 (2009).
Yekutiel, Y., Rotem, Y., Arnon, S. & Dahan, O. Optimized fertilization using online soil nitrate data. SOIL 10, 335–347 (2024).
National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2018 Vegetable Chemical Use Survey. https://www.nass.usda.gov/Surveys/Guide_to_NASS_Surveys/Chemical_Use/ (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2018).
Dobermann, A. Nutrient Use Efficiency – Measurement and Management (International Fertilizer Industry Association, 2007).
Minikaev, D., Zurgel, U., Tripler, E. & Gelfand, I. Effect of increasing nitrogen fertilization on soil nitrous oxide emissions and nitrate leaching in a young date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L., cv. Medjool) orchard. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 319, 107569 (2021).
Gelfand, I., Shcherbak, I., Millar, N., Kravchenko, A. N. & Robertson, G. P. Long-term nitrous oxide fluxes in annual and perennial agricultural and unmanaged ecosystems in the upper Midwest USA. Glob. Chang. Biol. 22, 3594–3607 (2016).
National Agricultural Statistics Service. Crop Values 2025 Summary. https://esmis.nal.usda.gov/publication/crop-values-annual-summary (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2026).
Agricultural Marketing Service. Pacific Northwest Production Cost Report. https://mymarketnews.ams.usda.gov/viewReport/3657 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2026).
Sobota, D. J., Compton, J. E., McCrackin, M. L. & Singh, S. Cost of reactive nitrogen release from human activities to the environment in the United States. Environ. Res. Lett. 10, 025006 (2015).
Wang, T. & Teng, F. Damage function uncertainty increases the social cost of methane and nitrous oxide. Nat. Clim. Chang. 13, 1258–1265 (2023).
Council of the European Communities Council Directive 91/676/EEC Concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources. Off. J. L 375, 12 (1991).
Sun, B. et al. Agricultural non-point source pollution in China: causes and mitigation measures. Ambio 41, 370–379 (2012).
Blesh, J. & Drinkwater, L. E. The impact of nitrogen source and crop rotation on nitrogen mass balances in the Mississippi River Basin. Ecol. Appl. 23, 1017–1035 (2013).
Bellassen, V. et al. Monitoring, reporting and verifying emissions in the climate economy. Nat. Clim. Chang. 5, 319–328 (2015).
Arauzo, M. Vulnerability of groundwater resources to nitrate pollution: a simple and effective procedure for delimiting Nitrate Vulnerable Zones. Sci. Total Environ. 575, 799–812 (2017).
Basso, B. et al. Environmental and economic benefits of variable rate nitrogen fertilization in a nitrate vulnerable zone. Sci. Total Environ. 545–546, 227–235 (2016).
Dabach, S., Shani, U. & Lazarovitch, N. Optimal tensiometer placement for high-frequency subsurface drip irrigation management in heterogeneous soils. Agric. Water Manag. 152, 91–98 (2015).
Ferraz-Almeida, R. Balance of nitrate and ammonium in tropical soil conditions: soil factors analyzed by machine learning. Nitrogen 5, 732–745 (2024).
Zhang, J., Cai, Z. & Müller, C. Terrestrial N cycling associated with climate and plant-specific N preferences: a review. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 69, 488–501 (2018).
Yupiter, R., Arnon, S., Yeshno, E., Visoly-Fisher, I. & Dahan, O. Real-time detection of ammonium in soil pore water. NPJ Clean. Water 6, 25 (2023).
Yeshno, E., Dahan, O., Bernstain, S. & Arnon, S. A novel analytical approach for the simultaneous measurement of nitrate and dissolved organic carbon in soil water. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 25, 2159–2168 (2021).
Miranda, K. M., Espey, M. G. & Wink, D. A. A rapid, simple spectrophotometric method for simultaneous detection of nitrate and nitrite. Nitric oxide 5, 62–71 (2001).
Bottoms, T. G., Smith, R. F., Cahn, M. D. & Hartz, T. K. Nitrogen requirements and N Status determination of lettuce. HortScience 47, 1768–1774 (2012).
Chao, C. T., Sutarna, N., Chiou, J. S. & Wang, C. J. An optimal fuzzy PID controller design based on conventional PID control and nonlinear factors. Appl. Sci. 9, 1224 (2019).
Goodchild, M. et al. A method for precision closed-loop irrigation using a modified PID control algorithm sensors & transducers. Sens. Transducers 188, 61–68 (2015).
Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D. & Smith, M. Crop evapotranspiration-Guidelines for computing crop water requirements-FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56. Fao Rome 300, D05109 (1998).
Meteo-Tech. Weather station data for Yair Agricultural R&D Center. at https://www.meteo-tech.co.il/YairHatzeva/YairHatzeva.asp.
Lorenzoni, M. Z. et al. Estimation of the crop coefficient (Kc) for bell pepper under greenhouse conditions. Rev. Brasileira de. Engenharia Agric. e Ambiental 23, 741–746 (2019).
Cowan, N. J. et al. An improved method for measuring soil N2O fluxes using a quantum cascade laser with a dynamic chamber. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 65, 643–652 (2014).
Holland, E. A. et al. Soil CO2, N2O, and CH4 exchange. In Standard Soil Methods for Long-Term Ecological Research (eds. Robertson, G. P., Bledsoe, C. S., Coleman, D. C. & Sollins, P.) 185–201 (Oxford, 1999).
Shrestha, R. C. et al. The effects of microalgae-based fertilization of wheat on yield, soil microbiome and nitrogen oxides emissions. Sci. Total Environ. 806, 151320 (2022).
Meixner, F. X. & Yang, W. X. Biogenic emissions of nitric oxide and nitrous oxide from arid and semi-arid land. in Dryland ecohydrology 233–255 (Springer, 2006)
Christiansen, J. R., Outhwaite, J. & Smukler, S. M. Comparison of CO2, CH4 and N2O soil-atmosphere exchange measured in static chambers with cavity ring-down spectroscopy and gas chromatography. Agric. Meteorol. 211–212, 48–57 (2015).
Şahin, M. & Aybek, E. Jamovi: an easy to use statistical software for the social scientists. Int. J. Assess. Tools Educ. 6, 670–692 (2019).
Hedges, L. V. & Olkin, I. Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis (Academic Press, 2014).