Krimm, H. A. et al. GRB 160425A: Swift detection of an unusual burst with an optical afterglow. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19343 (2016).

Melandri, A. et al. GRB 160425A: Swift-XRT refined analysis. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19348 (2016).

Bodensteiner, J., Schmidl, S. & Greiner, J. GRB 160425A: GROND observation. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19349 (2016).

Cobb, B. E. GRB 160425A: SMARTS optical/IR observations. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19354 (2016).

Siegel, M. H. & Krimm, H. A. GRB 160425A: Swift/UVOT detection. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19357 (2016).

Tanvir, N. R. et al. GRB 160425A VLT/X-shooter redshift. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19350 (2016).

Golkhou, V. Z., Butler, N. R. & Littlejohns, O. M. The energy dependence of GRB minimum variability timescales. Astrophys. J. 811, 93 (2015).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yi, T., Liang, E., Qin, Y. & Lu, R. On the spectral lags of the short gamma-ray bursts. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 367, 1751–1756 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, Z., Xie, G. Z., Deng, J. G. & Jin, W. Revisiting the characteristics of the spectral lags in short gamma-ray bursts. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 373, 729–732 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Bernardini, M. G. et al. Comparing the spectral lag of short and long gamma-ray bursts and its relation with the luminosity. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 446, 1129–1138 (2015).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Norris, J. P., Marani, G. F. & Bonnell, J. T. Connection between energy-dependent lags and peak luminosity in gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 534, 248–257 (2000).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Amati, L. et al. Intrinsic spectra and energetics of BeppoSAX gamma-ray bursts with known redshifts. Astron. Astrophys. 390, 81–89 (2002).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, B. et al. Discerning the physical origins of cosmological gamma-ray bursts based on multiple observational criteria: the cases of z = 6.7 GRB 080913, z = 8.2 GRB 090423, and some short/hard GRBs. Astrophys. J. 703, 1696–1724 (2009).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Qin, Y.-P. & Chen, Z.-F. Statistical classification of gamma-ray bursts based on the Amati relation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 430, 163–173 (2013).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Minaev, P. Y. & Pozanenko, A. S. The Ep,I–Eiso correlation: type I gamma-ray bursts and the new classification method. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 492, 1919–1936 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lü, H.-J., Liang, E.-W., Zhang, B.-B. & Zhang, B. A new classification method for gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 725, 1965–1970 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Fynbo, J. P. U. et al. No supernovae associated with two long-duration γ-ray bursts. Nature 444, 1047–1049 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Gal-Yam, A. et al. A novel explosive process is required for the γ-ray burst GRB 060614. Nature 444, 1053–1055 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Gehrels, N. et al. A new γ-ray burst classification scheme from GRB060614. Nature 444, 1044–1046 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rastinejad, J. C. et al. A kilonova following a long-duration gamma-ray burst at 350 Mpc. Nature 612, 223–227 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Troja, E. et al. A nearby long gamma-ray burst from a merger of compact objects. Nature 612, 228–231 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yang, J. et al. A long-duration gamma-ray burst with a peculiar origin. Nature 612, 232–235 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Levan, A. J. et al. Heavy-element production in a compact object merger observed by JWST. Nature 626, 737–741 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yang, Y.-H. et al. A lanthanide-rich kilonova in the aftermath of a long gamma-ray burst. Nature 626, 742–745 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, B.-B. et al. A peculiarly short-duration gamma-ray burst from massive star core collapse. Nat. Astron. 5, 911–916 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Becerra, R. L. et al. Reverse shock emission revealed in early photometry in the candidate short GRB 180418A. Astrophys. J. 881, 12 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L., Wang, Y., Geng, J.-J., Huang, Y.-F. & Cai, R.-G. Pulse-resolved classification and characteristics of long-duration gamma-ray bursts with Swift-BAT data. I. Precursors versus main bursts. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 283, 47 (2026).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. et al. Pulse-resolved classification and characteristics of long-duration gamma-ray bursts with Swift-BAT data. II. Main bursts versus extended emissions. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 285, 33 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. Sub-burst-resolved classification and characteristics of double-trigger gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 1003, 238 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Norris, J. P. & Bonnell, J. T. Short gamma-ray bursts with extended emission. Astrophys. J. 643, 266–275 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Falcone, A. D. et al. The giant x-ray flare of GRB 050502B: evidence for late-time internal engine activity. Astrophys. J. 641, 1010–1017 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Dai, Z. G., Wang, X. Y., Wu, X. F. & Zhang, B. X-ray flares from postmerger millisecond pulsars. Science 311, 1127–1129 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hakkila, J. & Giblin, T. W. Quiescent burst evidence for two distinct gamma-ray burst emission components. Astrophys. J. 610, 361–367 (2004).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. et al. A correlated study of optical and X-ray afterglows of GRBs. Astrophys. J. 805, 13 (2015).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. et al. Constraining the type of central engine of GRBs with Swift data. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 236, 26 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ruffini, R. et al. Early X-ray flares in GRBs. Astrophys. J. 852, 53 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, B. The Physics of Gamma-Ray Bursts (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2018).

Cobb, B. E. GRB 160425A: SMARTS late-time observations. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19454 (2016).

Margutti, R. et al. X-ray flare candidates in short gamma-ray bursts. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 417, 2144–2160 (2011).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, B.-B. et al. Transition from fireball to Poynting-flux-dominated outflow in the three-episode GRB 160625B. Nat. Astron. 2, 69–75 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ryde, F. et al. Onset of particle acceleration during the prompt phase in gamma-ray bursts as revealed by synchrotron emission in GRB 160821A. Astrophys. J. Lett. 932, L15 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Burlon, D. et al. Precursors in Swift gamma ray bursts with redshift. Astrophys. J. Lett. 685, L19 (2008).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Burlon, D., Ghirlanda, G., Ghisellini, G., Greiner, J. & Celotti, A. Time resolved spectral behavior of bright BATSE precursors. Astron. Astrophys. 505, 569–575 (2009).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hu, Y.-D. et al. Internal energy dissipation of gamma-ray bursts observed with Swift: precursors, prompt gamma-rays, extended emission, and late X-ray flares. Astrophys. J. 789, 145 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Anand, N., Shahid, M. & Resmi, L. Merger delay time distribution of extended emission short GRBs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 481, 4332–4341 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, X. J., Zhang, Z. B., Zhang, X. L. & Zhen, H. Y. Temporal properties of precursors, main peaks, and extended emissions of short GRBs in the third Swift/BAT GRB catalog. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 252, 16 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Deng, H.-Y., Peng, Z.-Y., Chen, J.-M., Yin, Y. & Li, T. A study of the spectral properties of gamma-ray bursts with the precursors and main bursts. Astrophys. J. 970, 67 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Geng, J.-J., Zhang, B. & Kuiper, R. Propagation of relativistic, hydrodynamic, intermittent jets in a rotating, collapsing GRB progenitor star. Astrophys. J. 833, 116 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lan, L. et al. Characteristics of two-episode emission patterns in Fermi long gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 862, 155 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. & Mao, J. Temporal analysis of GRB precursors in the third Swift-BAT catalog. Astrophys. J. 928, 152 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Evans, P. A. et al. An online repository of Swift/XRT light curves of γ-ray bursts. Astron. Astrophys. 469, 379–385 (2007).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Evans, P. A. et al. Methods and results of an automatic analysis of a complete sample of Swift-XRT observations of GRBs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 397, 1177–1201 (2009).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Vianello, G. et al. The Multi-Mission Maximum Likelihood framework (3ML). Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/1507.08343 (2015).

Romano, P. et al. Panchromatic study of GRB 060124: from precursor to afterglow. Astron. Astrophys. 456, 917–927 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cash, W. Parameter estimation in astronomy through application of the likelihood ratio. Astrophys. J. 228, 939–947 (1979).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Bloom, J. S., Frail, D. A. & Sari, R. The prompt energy release of gamma-ray bursts using a cosmological k-correction. Astron. J. 121, 2879–2888 (2001).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Evans, P. A. et al. 1SXPS: a deep Swift X-ray telescope point source catalog with light curves and spectra. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 210, 8 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Dezalay, J. P. et al. Short cosmic events: a subset of classical GRBs? In American Institute of Physics Conference Series Vol. 265 (eds Paciesas, W. S. & Fishman, G. J.) 304–309 (American Institute of Physics, 1992).

Horváth, I. et al. Detailed classification of Swift ’s gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 713, 552–557 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kouveliotou, C. et al. Identification of two classes of gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. Lett. 413, L101–L104 (1993).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Golkhou, V. Z. & Butler, N. R. Uncovering the intrinsic variability of gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 787, 90 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lü, H.-J., Zhang, B., Liang, E.-W., Zhang, B.-B. & Sakamoto, T. The ‘amplitude’ parameter of gamma-ray bursts and its implications for GRB classification. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 442, 1922–1929 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Villasenor, J. S. et al. Discovery of the short γ-ray burst GRB 050709. Nature 437, 855–858 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

D’Avanzo, P. et al. A complete sample of bright Swift short gamma-ray bursts. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 442, 2342–2356 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Leibler, C. N. & Berger, E. The stellar ages and masses of short gamma-ray burst host galaxies: investigating the progenitor delay time distribution and the role of mass and star formation in the short gamma-ray burst rate. Astrophys. J. 725, 1202–1214 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Norris, J. P., Gehrels, N. & Scargle, J. D. Heterogeneity in short gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 735, 23 (2011).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cheng, L. X., Ma, Y. Q., Cheng, K. S., Lu, T. & Zhou, Y. Y. The time delay of gamma-ray bursts in the soft energy band. Astron. Astrophys. 300, 746 (1995).

ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Band, D. L. Gamma-ray burst spectral evolution through cross-correlations of discriminator light curves. Astrophys. J. 486, 928–937 (1997).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ukwatta, T. N. et al. Spectral lags and the lag-luminosity relation: an investigation with Swift BAT gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 711, 1073–1086 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. & Wang, Y. A novel method of estimating gamma-ray burst peak energies beyond the Swift/BAT limit. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 283, 18 (2026).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Planck Collaboration et al. Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 641, A6 https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 (2020).

Rosenblatt, M. Remarks on some nonparametric estimates of a density function. Ann. Math. Stat. 27, 832–837 https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177728190 (1956).

Article 
MathSciNet 

Google Scholar
 

Parzen, E. On estimation of a probability density function and mode. Ann. Math. Stat. 33, 1065–1076 https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177704472 (1962).

Article 
MathSciNet 

Google Scholar
 

Scott, D. W. Multivariate Density Estimation: Theory, Practice, and Visualization (John Wiley, 1992).

Virtanen, P. et al. SciPy 1.0: fundamental algorithms for scientific computing in Python. Nat. Methods 17, 261–272 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Stone, M. Cross-validatory choice and assessment of statistical predictions. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B 36, 111–133 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1974.tb00994.x (1974).

Article 
MathSciNet 

Google Scholar
 

Newville, M. et al. Lmfit: non-linear least-square minimization and curve-fitting for Python. Astrophysics Source Code Library ascl:1606.014 (2016).

Roming, P. W. A. et al. The Swift Ultra-Violet/Optical Telescope. Space Sci. Rev. 120, 95–142 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Schlafly, E. F. & Finkbeiner, D. P. Measuring reddening with Sloan Digital Sky Survey stellar spectra and recalibrating SFD. Astrophys. J. 737, 103 (2011).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Oke, J. B. & Sandage, A. Energy distributions, k corrections, and the Stebbins–Whitford effect for giant elliptical galaxies. Astrophys. J. 154, 21 (1968).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Peterson, B. M. An Introduction to Active Galactic Nuclei (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997).

Li, L. et al. A large catalog of multiwavelength GRB afterglows. I. Color evolution and its physical implication. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 234, 26 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Pei, Y. C. Interstellar dust from the Milky Way to the Magellanic Clouds. Astrophys. J. 395, 130–139 (1992).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cano, Z., Wang, S.-Q., Dai, Z.-G. & Wu, X.-F. The observer’s guide to the gamma-ray burst supernova connection. Adv. Astron. 2017, 8929054 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Calzetti, D. Reddening and star formation in starburst galaxies. Astron. J. 113, 162–184 (1997).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Clocchiatti, A., Suntzeff, N. B., Covarrubias, R. & Candia, P. The ultimate light curve of SN 1998bw/GRB 980425. Astron. J. 141, 163 (2011).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zeh, A., Klose, S. & Hartmann, D. H. A systematic analysis of supernova light in gamma-ray burst afterglows. Astrophys. J. 609, 952–961 (2004).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ryan, G., van Eerten, H., Piro, L. & Troja, E. Gamma-ray burst afterglows in the multimessenger era: numerical models and closure relations. Astrophys. J. 896, 166 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lipunov, V. et al. GRB 160425A: MASTER earlier optical observations. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19344 (2016).

Balanutsa, P. et al. GRB 160425A MASTER notices: possible host galaxy in the optical error-box. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19351 (2016).

Beardmore, A. P., Evans, P. A., Goad, M. R. & Osborne, J. P. GRB 160425A: enhanced Swift-XRT position. GRB Coord. Netw. Circ. No. 19347 (2016).

Selsing, J. et al. The X-shooter GRB afterglow legacy sample (XS-GRB). Astron. Astrophys. 623, A92 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Stroe, A. & Savu, V.-N. GLEAM: Galaxy Line Emission & Absorption Modeling. Astron. J. 161, 158 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kennicutt, R. C. & Evans, N. J. Star formation in the Milky Way and nearby galaxies. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 50, 531–608 (2012).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Pettini, M. & Pagel, B. E. J. [OIII]/[NII] as an abundance indicator at high redshift. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 348, L59–L63 (2004).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Freudling, W. et al. Automated data reduction workflows for astronomy. The ESO Reflex environment. Astron. Astrophys. 559, A96 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bertin, E. & Arnouts, S. SExtractor: software for source extraction. Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser. 117, 393–404 (1996).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Bertin, E. Automatic astrometric and photometric calibration with SCAMP. In Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems XV Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series Vol. 351 (eds Gabriel, C. et al.) 112–115 (Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2006).

Bertin, E. et al. The TERAPIX pipeline. In Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems XI Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series Vol. 281 (eds Bohlender, D. A. et al.) 228–237 (Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2002).

Li, Y., Zhang, B. & Lü, H.-J. A comparative study of long and short GRBs. I. Overlapping properties. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 227, 7 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Fong, W. -f et al. Short GRB host galaxies. I. Photometric and spectroscopic catalogs, host associations, and galactocentric offsets. Astrophys. J. 940, 56 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, H., Dastidar, R. G., Giannios, D. & Duffell, P. C. jetsimpy: a highly efficient hydrodynamic code for gamma-ray burst afterglow. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 273, 17 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, Y., Chen, C. & Zhang, B. VegasAfterglow: a high-performance framework for gamma-ray burst afterglows. J. High Energy Astrophys. 50, 100490 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Beniamini, P. & van der Horst, A. J. Electrons’ energy in GRB afterglows implied by radio peaks. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 472, 3161–3168 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Aksulu, M. D., Wijers, R. A. M. J., van Eerten, H. J. & van der Horst, A. J. Exploring the GRB population: robust afterglow modelling. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 511, 2848–2867 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Götz, D. et al. A detailed spectral study of GRB 041219A and its host galaxy. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 413, 2173–2183 (2011).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Virgili, F. J. et al. GRB 091024A and the nature of ultra-long gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 778, 54 (2013).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Huang, Y.-Y., Zhang, H.-M., Yan, K., Liu, R.-Y. & Wang, X.-Y. Detection of GeV emission from an ultralong gamma-ray burst with the Fermi Large Area Telescope. Astrophys. J. Lett. 940, L36 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. Multipulse Fermi gamma-ray bursts. I. Evidence of the transition from fireball to Poynting-flux-dominated outflow. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 242, 16 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, B.-B. et al. Unusual central engine activity in the double burst GRB 110709B. Astrophys. J. 748, 132 (2012).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

de Wet, S. et al. The ultra-long GRB 220627A at z = 3.08. Astron. Astrophys. 677, A32 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Tanvir, N. R. et al. A ‘kilonova’ associated with the short-duration γ-ray burst GRB 130603B. Nature 500, 547–549 (2013).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hjorth, J. et al. A very energetic supernova associated with the γ-ray burst of 29 March 2003. Nature 423, 847–850 (2003).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Dey, A. et al. Overview of the DESI Legacy Imaging Surveys. Astron. J. 157, 168 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Shi, Y.-R. et al. Statistical properties of X-ray flares in gamma-ray bursts. Universe 8, 358 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Chincarini, G. et al. Unveiling the origin of X-ray flares in gamma-ray bursts. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 406, 2113–2148 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar