Sparrer MN, Hodges NF, Sherman T, VandeWoude S, Bosco-Lauth AM, Mayo CE. Role of spillover and spillback in SARS-CoV-2 transmission and the importance of one health in Understanding the dynamics of the COVID-19 pandemic. J Clin Microbiol. 2023;61(7):e01610–22.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Shackelton LA, Parrish CR, Truyen U, Holmes EC. High rate of viral evolution associated with the emergence of carnivore parvovirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(2):379–84.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Olival KJ, Daszak P. The ecology of emerging neurotropic viruses. J Neurovirol. 2005;11(5):441–6.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Bennett AJ, Paskey AC, Ebinger A, Pfaff F, Priemer G, Höper D, et al. Relatives of Rubella virus in diverse mammals. Nature. 2020;586(7829):424–8.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Bennett AJ, Paskey AC, Ebinger A, Pfaff F, Priemer G, Höper D, et al. Author correction: relatives of Rubella virus in diverse mammals. Nature. 2020;588(7836):E2–E.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Matiasek K, Pfaff F, Weissenböck H, Wylezich C, Kolodziejek J, Tengstrand S, et al. Mystery of fatal ‘staggering disease’ unravelled: novel Rustrela virus causes severe meningoencephalomyelitis in domestic cats. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):624.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Pfaff F, Breithaupt A, Rubbenstroth D, Nippert S, Baumbach C, Gerst S, et al. Revisiting Rustrela virus: new cases of encephalitis and a solution to the capsid enigma. Microbiol Spectr. 2022;10(2):e00103–22.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Schulze V, Große R, Fürstenau J, Forth LF, Ebinger A, Richter MT, et al. Borna disease outbreak with high mortality in an alpaca herd in a previously unreported endemic area in Germany. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2020;67(5):2093–107.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Völker H, Nessler, Baumgärtner W. First tick-borne encephalitis in a dog resident in Northern Germany. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 2017;130:114–60.


Google Scholar
 

Ebinger A, Santos PD, Pfaff F, Dürrwald R, Kolodziejek J, Schlottau K, et al. Lethal Borna disease virus 1 infections of humans and animals – in-depth molecular epidemiology and phylogeography. Nat Commun. 2024;15(1):7908.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Niller HH, Angstwurm K, Rubbenstroth D, Schlottau K, Ebinger A, Giese S, et al. Zoonotic spillover infections with Borna disease virus 1 leading to fatal human encephalitis, 1999–2019: an epidemiological investigation. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(4):467–77.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pfeffer SH, Leschnik M. TBE in animals. Chapter 10. In: Dobler G, Erber W, Bröker M, Chitimia-Dobler L, Schmitt HJ, eds. The TBE Book2024.

Elsmo EJ, Wünschmann A, Beckmen KB, Broughton-Neiswanger LE, Buckles EL, Ellis J, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus clade 2.3.4.4b infections in wild terrestrial Mammals, united States, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(12):2451–60.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Mirolo M, Anne P, Kathrin AA, Bianca K, Ana R-G, Katharina K, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A virus (HPAIV) H5N1 infection in two European grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) with encephalitis. Emerg Microbes Infections. 2023;12(2):2257810.


Google Scholar
 

Thorsson E, Zohari S, Roos A, Banihashem F, Bröjer C, Neimanis A. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus in a harbor Porpoise, Sweden. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(4):852–5.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Tammiranta N, Isomursu M, Fusaro A, Nylund M, Nokireki T, Giussani E, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infections in wild carnivores connected to mass mortalities of pheasants in Finland. Infect Genet Evol. 2023;111:105423.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Baechlein C, Kleinschmidt S, Hartmann D, Kammeyer P, Wöhlke A, Warmann T, et al. Neurotropic highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus in red Foxes, Northern Germany. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(12):2509–12.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Voss A, Schlieben P, Gerst S, Wylezich C, Pfaff F, Langner C, et al. Rustrela virus infection – An emerging neuropathogen of red-necked wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). Transbound Emerg Dis. 2022;69(6):4016–21.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

de le Roi M, Puff C, Wohlsein P, Pfaff F, Beer M, Baumgärtner W, et al. Rustrela virus as putative cause of nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis in lions. Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(5):1042–5.


Google Scholar
 

de le Roi M, Nägler I, Rubbenstroth D, Beer M, Höper D, Barth SA, et al. Retrospective analysis of clustered neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases in captive lions in the early 1970s. Vet Pathol. 2025;0(0):03009858251335280.


Google Scholar
 

Fox KA, Breithaupt A, Beer M, Rubbenstroth D, Pfaff F. Rustrela virus in wild mountain Lion (Puma concolor) with staggering Disease, Colorado, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024;30(8):1664–7.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Weiss V, Weidinger P, Matt J, Weissenbacher-Lang C, Nowotny N, Weissenböck H. Rustrela Virus-Associated encephalomyelitis (‘Staggering Disease’) in cats from Eastern Austria, 1994–2016. Viruses. 2023;15(8):1621.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Thilén E, Rubbenstroth D, Tengstrand S, Pfaff F, Wensman JJ, Ley C. Evidence of Rustrela virus-associated feline staggering disease in Sweden since the 1970s. Acta Vet Scand. 2024;66(1):59.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Nippert S, Rubbenstroth D, Geers JA, Ebinger A, Hoffmann D, Breithaupt A et al. Continuous presence of genetically diverse Rustrela virus lineages in yellow-necked field mouse reservoir populations in Northeastern Germany. Virus Evol. 2023;9(2).

Dürrwald R, Kolodziejek J, Weissenböck H, Nowotny N. The bicolored White-Toothed shrew crocidura Leucodon (HERMANN 1780) is an Indigenous host of mammalian Borna disease virus. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(4):e93659.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Nobach D, Bourg M, Herzog S, Lange-Herbst H, Encarnação JA, Eickmann M, et al. Shedding of infectious Borna disease Virus-1 in living bicolored White-Toothed shrews. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(8):e0137018.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Böhmer MM, Haring VC, Schmidt B, Saller FS, Coyer L, Chitimia-Dobler L, et al. One health in action: investigation of the first detected local cluster of fatal Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1) encephalitis, Germany 2022. J Clin Virol. 2024;171:105658.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Fürstenau J, Richter MT, Erickson NA, Große R, Müller KE, Nobach D, et al. Borna disease virus 1 infection in alpacas: comparison of pathological lesions and viral distribution to other dead-end hosts. Vet Pathol. 2024;61(1):62–73.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hausmann J, Schamel K, Staeheli P. CD8 + T lymphocytes mediate Borna disease Virus-Induced immunopathology independently of Perforin. J Virol. 2001;75(21):10460–6.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Richt J, Stitz L, Deschl U, Frese K, Rott R. Borna disease virus-induced meningoencephalomyelitis caused by a virus-specific CD4 + T cell-mediated immune reaction. J Gen Virol. 1990;71(11):2565–73.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Kolodziejek J, Dürrwald R, Herzog S, Ehrensperger F, Lussy H, Nowotny N. Genetic clustering of Borna disease virus natural animal isolates, laboratory and vaccine strains strongly reflects their regional geographical origin. J Gen Virol. 2005;86(2):385–98.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Weissenböck H, Bagó Z, Kolodziejek J, Hager B, Palmetzhofer G, Dürrwald R, et al. Infections of horses and shrews with bornaviruses in upper austria: a novel endemic area of Borna disease. Emerg Microbes Infections. 2017;6(1):1–9.


Google Scholar
 

Gelpi E, Preusser M, Laggner U, Garzuly F, Holzmann H, Heinz FX, et al. Inflammatory response in human tick-borne encephalitis: analysis of postmortem brain tissue. J Neurovirol. 2006;12(4):322–7.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Andersson E, Kendall A, Url A, Auer A, Leschnik M. The first RT-qPCR confirmed case of tick-borne encephalitis in a dog in Scandinavia. Acta Vet Scand. 2020;62(1):51.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Conze TM, Bagó Z, Revilla-Fernández S, Schlegel J, Goehring LS, Matiasek K. Tick-Borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection in two horses. Viruses. 2021;13(9):1775.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

de Heus P, Bagó Z, Weidinger P, Lale D, Trachsel DS, Revilla-Fernández S, et al. Severe neurologic disease in a horse caused by Tick-Borne encephalitis Virus, Austria, 2021. Viruses. 2023;15(10):2022.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Böhm B, Schade B, Bauer B, Hoffmann B, Hoffmann D, Ziegler U, et al. Tick-borne encephalitis in a naturally infected sheep. BMC Vet Res. 2017;13(1):267.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Michelitsch A, Wernike K, Klaus C, Dobler G, Beer M. Exploring the reservoir hosts of Tick-Borne encephalitis virus. Viruses. 2019;11(7):669.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

European Food Safety Authority, ECfDPCEURLfA I, Adlhoch C, Fusaro A, Gonzales JL, Kuiken T, et al. Avian influenza overview December 2022 – March 2023. EFSA J. 2023;21(3):e07917.

PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Plaza PI, Gamarra-Toledo V, Euguí JR, Lambertucci SA. Recent changes in patterns of mammal infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus worldwide. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024;30(3):444–52.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Braun J, Mundhenk L, Range F, Gruber AD. Quantitative expression analyses of candidates for alternative anion conductance in cystic fibrosis mouse models. J Cyst Fibros. 2010;9(5):351–64.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Schindler AR, Vögtlin A, Hilbe M, Puorger M, Zlinszky K, Ackermann M, et al. Reverse transcription real-time PCR assays for detection and quantification of Borna disease virus in diseased hosts. Mol Cell Probes. 2007;21(1):47–55.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Toussaint JF, Sailleau C, Breard E, Zientara S, De Clercq K. Bluetongue virus detection by two real-time RT-qPCRs targeting two different genomic segments. J Virol Methods. 2007;140(1):115–23.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Schwaiger M, Cassinotti P. Development of a quantitative real-time RT-PCR assay with internal control for the laboratory detection of tick borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) RNA. J Clin Virol. 2003;27(2):136–45.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hoffmann B, Depner K, Schirrmeier H, Beer M. A universal heterologous internal control system for duplex real-time RT-PCR assays used in a detection system for pestiviruses. J Virol Methods. 2006;136(1):200–9.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Hassan KE, Ahrens AK, Ali A, El-Kady MF, Hafez HM, Mettenleiter TC, et al. Improved subtyping of avian influenza viruses using an RT-qPCR-Based low density array: ‘Riems influenza a typing Array’, version 2 (RITA-2). Viruses. 2022;14(2):415.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Gelpi E, Preusser M, Garzuly F, Holzmann H, Heinz FX, Budka H. Visualization of central European Tick-Borne encephalitis infection in fatal human cases. J Neuropathology Experimental Neurol. 2005;64(6):506–12.


Google Scholar
 

Heinz FX, Kunz C. Homogeneity of the structural glycoprotein from European isolates of Tick-borne encephalitis virus: comparison with other flaviviruses. J Gen Virol. 1981;57(2):263–74.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Firsching TC, Dietert K, Bartel A, Doherr MG, Gruber AD. Dependence of the Ki67 labelling index of selected canine tumours on patient Age, sex and tumour size. J Comp Pathol. 2022;193:1–8.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pfaff F, Breithaupt A, Ulrich RG, Beer M, Rubbenstroth D. Rustrela-Virus – neu identifizierter enzephalitiserreger Mit Breitem wirtsspektrum Bei Säugetieren. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 2025;138:1–12.


Google Scholar
 

Kronevi T, Nordström M, Moreno W, Nilsson PO. Feline ataxia due to nonsuppurative meningoencephalomyelitis of unknown aetiology. Nord Vet Med. 1974;26(12):720–5.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Nowotny N, Weissenböck H. Description of feline nonsuppurative meningoencephalomyelitis (staggering disease) and studies of its etiology. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33(6):1668–9.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Weissenböck H, Nowotny N, Zoher J. Feline meningo-encephalomyelitis (staggering disease) in Austria. Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift. 1994;81(7):195–201. ref. 19.


Google Scholar
 

Caplazi P, Ehrensperger F. Spontaneous Borna disease in sheep and horses: immunophenotyping of inflammatory cells and detection of MHC-I and MHC-II antigen expression in Borna encephalitis lesions. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1998;61(2):203–20.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Caplazi P, Waldvogel A, Stitz L, Braun U, Ehrensperger F. Borna disease in naturally infected cattle. J Comp Pathol. 1994;111(1):65–72.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Metzler A, Ehrensperger F, Wyler R. Natürliche Bornavirus-Infektion Bei Kaninchen. Zentralblatt für Veterinärmedizin Reihe B. 1978;25(2):161–4.


Google Scholar
 

Bornand J, Fatzer R, Melzer K, Jmaa DG, Caplazi P, Ehrensperger F. A case of Borna disease in a Cat. Eur J Veterinary Pathol. 1998;4(3):33–5. ref. 13.


Google Scholar
 

Ellenberger C, Heenemann K, Vahlenkamp TW, Grothmann P, Herden C, Heinrich A. Borna disease in an adult free-ranging Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber albicus). J Comp Pathol. 2024;209:31–5.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Weissenböck H, Nowotny N, Caplazi P, Kolodziejek J, Ehrensperger F. Borna disease in a dog with lethal meningoencephalitis. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36(7):2127–30.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Weissenböck H, Suchy A, Holzmann H. Tick-borne encephalitis in dogs: neuropathological findings and distribution of antigen. Acta Neuropathol. 1998;95(4):361–6.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Pfeffer M, Dobler G. Tick-borne encephalitis virus in dogs – is this an issue? Parasites Vectors. 2011;4(1):59.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Im JH, Baek J-H, Durey A, Kwon HY, Chung M-H, Lee J-S. Geographic distribution of Tick-borne encephalitis virus complex. J Vector Borne Dis. 2020;57(1).

Hellenbrand W, Kreusch T, Böhmer MM, Wagner-Wiening C, Dobler G, Wichmann O, et al. Epidemiology of Tick-Borne encephalitis (TBE) in Germany, 2001–2018. Pathogens. 2019;8(2):42.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Robert-Koch-Institut. Epidemiologisches Bulletin 09/25. 2025.

Süss J, Schrader C, Falk U, Wohanka N. Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) in Germany — Epidemiological data, development of risk areas and virus prevalence in field-collected ticks and in ticks removed from humans. Int J Med Microbiol Supplements. 2004;293:69–79.


Google Scholar
 

Priestnall SL, Schöniger S, Ivens PA, Eickmann M, Brachthäuser L, Kehr K, et al. Borna disease virus infection of a horse in great Britain. Vet Rec. 2011;168(14):380b.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Klopfleisch R, Wolf PU, Uhl W, Gerst S, Harder T, Starick E, et al. Distribution of lesions and antigen of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/Swan/Germany/R65/06 (H5N1) in domestic cats after presumptive infection by wild birds. Vet Pathol. 2007;44(3):261–8.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Peacock TP, Moncla L, Dudas G, VanInsberghe D, Sukhova K, Lloyd-Smith JO, et al. The global H5N1 influenza panzootic in mammals. Nature. 2025;637(8045):304–13.

PubMed 

Google Scholar
 

Leguia M, Garcia-Glaessner A, Muñoz-Saavedra B, Juarez D, Barrera P, Calvo-Mac C, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) in marine mammals and seabirds in Peru. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):5489.

PubMed 
PubMed Central 

Google Scholar
 

Consortium ENETWILD, Flavia O, Sascha K, Carola S-L, Christoph S, Valerie A, et al. The role of mammals in avian influenza: a review. EFSA Supporting Publications. 2024;21(3):8692E.


Google Scholar
 

First tick-borne. Encephalitis in a dog resident in Northern Germany. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 2017;130:114–60.


Google Scholar
 

Voss A, Enders J, Dökel S, Breithaupt A, Rubbenstroth D, Mundhenk L. Das Rustrela-Virus Bei nicht-eitrigen Meningoenzephalitiden – weitere Fälle Im Großraum Berlin. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere. 2024;52(03):P19.


Google Scholar
Â