Pithan, F. & Mauritsen, T. Arctic amplification dominated by temperature feedbacks in contemporary climate models. Nat. Geosci. 7, 181–184 (2014).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Rantanen, M. et al. The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979. Commun. Earth Environ. 3, 168 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Mekonnen, Z. A. et al. Arctic tundra shrubification: a review of mechanisms and impacts on ecosystem carbon balance. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 053001 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Moon, T., Ahlstrøm, A., Goelzer, H., Lipscomb, W. & Nowicki, S. Rising oceans guaranteed: Arctic land ice loss and sea level rise. Curr. Clim. Change Rep. 4, 211–222 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Smith, D. M. et al. Robust but weak winter atmospheric circulation response to future Arctic sea ice loss. Nat. Commun. 13, 727 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Vihma, T. Effects of Arctic sea ice decline on weather and climate: a review. Surv. Geophys. 35, 1175–1214 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Griesche, H. J. et al. Low-level Arctic clouds: a blind zone in our knowledge of the radiation budget. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 24, 597–612 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kay, J. E. et al. Recent advances in Arctic cloud and climate research. Curr. Clim. Change Rep. 2, 159–169 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Stevens, R. G. et al. A model intercomparison of CCN-limited tenuous clouds in the high Arctic. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18, 11041–11071 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Prenni, A. J. et al. Can ice-nucleating aerosols affect Arctic seasonal climate? Bull. Am. Meteorolog. Soc. 88, 541–550 (2007).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Curry, J. A., Schramm, J. L., Rossow, W. B. & Randall, D. Overview of Arctic cloud and radiation characteristics. J. Clim. 9, 1731–1764 (1996).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Mauritsen, T. et al. An Arctic CCN-limited cloud-aerosol regime. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 165–173 (2011).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Pernov, J. B. et al. Increased aerosol concentrations in the High Arctic attributable to changing atmospheric transport patterns. npj Clim. Atmos. Sci. 5, 62 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dall’Osto, M. et al. Regions of open water and melting sea ice drive new particle formation in North East Greenland. Sci. Rep. 8, 6109 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Park, K. et al. Dimethyl sulfide-induced increase in cloud condensation nuclei in the Arctic atmosphere. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 35, e2021GB006969 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Beck, L. J. et al. Differing mechanisms of new particle formation at two Arctic sites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48, e2020GL091334 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kecorius, S. et al. New particle formation and its effect on cloud condensation nuclei abundance in the summer Arctic: a case study in the Fram Strait and Barents Sea. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 19, 14339–14364 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gilgen, A., Huang, W. T. K., Ickes, L., Neubauer, D. & Lohmann, U. How important are future marine and shipping aerosol emissions in a warming Arctic summer and autumn? Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18, 10521–10555 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Heslin-Rees, D. et al. From a polar to a marine environment: has the changing Arctic led to a shift in aerosol light scattering properties? Atmos. Chem. Phys. 20, 13671–13686 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Schmale, J. et al. Pan-Arctic seasonal cycles and long-term trends of aerosol properties from 10 observatories. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 22, 3067–3096 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Breider, T. J. et al. Impact of BrO on dimethylsulfide in the remote marine boundary layer. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, 2009GL040868 (2010).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Browse, J. et al. The complex response of Arctic aerosol to sea-ice retreat. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14, 7543–7557 (2014).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, H. & Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. New particle formation from methanesulfonic acid and amines/ammonia as a function of temperature. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 243–252 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kirkby, J. et al. Atmospheric new particle formation from the CERN CLOUD experiment. Nat. Geosci. 16, 948–957 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Asmi, E. et al. Secondary new particle formation in northern Finland Pallas site between the years 2000 and 2010. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 12959–12972 (2011).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Asmi, E. et al. Aerosol size distribution seasonal characteristics measured in Tiksi, Russian Arctic. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 1271–1287 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Baccarini, A. et al. Frequent new particle formation over the high Arctic pack ice by enhanced iodine emissions. Nat. Commun. 11, 4924 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Boyer, M. et al. A full year of aerosol size distribution data from the central Arctic under an extreme positive Arctic Oscillation: insights from the Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) expedition. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 23, 389–415 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Freud, E. et al. Pan-Arctic aerosol number size distributions: seasonality and transport patterns. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17, 8101–8128 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lee, H. et al. Atmospheric new particle formation characteristics in the Arctic as measured at Mount Zeppelin, Svalbard, from 2016 to 2018. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 20, 13425–13441 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Nguyen, Q. T. et al. Seasonal variation of atmospheric particle number concentrations, newparticle formation and atmospheric oxidation capacity at the high Arcticsite Villum Research Station, Station Nord. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 11319–11336 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Tunved, P., Ström, J. & Krejci, R. Arctic aerosol life cycle: linking aerosol size distributions observed between 2000 and 2010 with air mass transport and precipitation at Zeppelin station, Ny-Ålesund. Svalbard. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13, 3643–3660 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Winiger, P. et al. Source apportionment of circum-Arctic atmospheric black carbon from isotopes and modeling. Sci. Adv. 5, eaau8052 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Quinn, P. K. et al. Arctic haze: current trends and knowledge gaps. Tellus B: Chem. Phys. Meteorol. 59, 99 (2007).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Sharma, S. et al. A factor and trends analysis of multidecadal lower tropospheric observations of Arctic aerosol composition, black carbon, ozone, and mercury at Alert, Canada. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124, 14133–14161 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Willis, M. D., Leaitch, W. R. & Abbatt, J. P. D. Processes controlling the composition and abundance of Arctic aerosol. Rev. Geophys. 56, 621–671 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Breider, T. J. et al. Multidecadal trends in aerosol radiative forcing over the Arctic: contribution of changes in anthropogenic aerosol to Arctic warming since 1980. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 122, 3573–3594 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Heslin-Rees, D. et al. Increase in precipitation scavenging contributes to long-term reductions of light-absorbing aerosol in the Arctic. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 24, 2059–2075 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Mackie, A. R. et al. Reduced Arctic air pollution due to decreasing European and North American emissions. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 121, 8692–8700 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Giamarelou, M. et al. Indirect evidence of the composition of nucleation mode atmospheric particles in the high Arctic. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 121, 965–975 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Price, R. et al. Late summer transition from a free-tropospheric to boundary layer source of Aitken mode aerosol in the high Arctic. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 23, 2927–2961 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Croft, B. et al. Arctic marine secondary organic aerosol contributes significantly to summertime particle size distributions in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 19, 2787–2812 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Korhonen, H., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., Ridley, D. A. & Ström, J. A global model study of processes controlling aerosol size distributions in the Arctic spring and summer. J. Geophys. Res. 113, D08211 (2008).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Virtanen, A. et al. High sensitivity of cloud formation to aerosol changes. Nat. Geosci. 18, 289–295 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Choudhury, G. & Tesche, M. A first global height-resolved cloud condensation nuclei data set derived from spaceborne lidar measurements. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 15, 3747–3760 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Boyer, M. et al. The annual cycle and sources of relevant aerosol precursor vapors in the central Arctic during the MOSAiC expedition. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 24, 12595–12621 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Collins, D. B. et al. Frequent ultrafine particle formation and growth in Canadian Arctic marine and coastal environments. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17, 13119–13138 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Freitas, G. P. et al. A comprehensive characterisation of natural aerosol sources in the high Arctic during the onset of sea ice melt. Faraday Discuss. 258, 120–146 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dall´Osto, M. et al. Arctic sea ice melt leads to atmospheric new particle formation. Sci. Rep. 7, 3318 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Becagli, S. et al. Relationships linking primary production, sea ice melting, and biogenic aerosol in the Arctic. Atmos. Environ. 136, 1–15 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Jokinen, T. et al. Measurement report: long-term measurements of aerosol precursor concentrations in the Finnish subarctic boreal forest. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 22, 2237–2254 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Sulo, J. et al. Long-term measurement of sub-3 nm particles and their precursor gases in the boreal forest. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 21, 695–715 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Garmash, O. et al. Heatwave reveals potential for enhanced aerosol formation in Siberian boreal forest. Environ. Res. Lett. 19, 014047 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Heintzenberg, J., Tunved, P., Galí, M. & Leck, C. New particle formation in the Svalbard region 2006–2015. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17, 6153–6175 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Moschos, V. et al. Equal abundance of summertime natural and wintertime anthropogenic Arctic organic aerosols. Nat. Geosci. 15, 196–202 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Gerland, S. et al. Still Arctic?—the changing Barents Sea. Elem. Sci. Anth. 11, 00088 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lind, S., Ingvaldsen, R. B. & Furevik, T. Arctic warming hotspot in the northern Barents Sea linked to declining sea-ice import. Nat. Clim. Change 8, 634–639 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bousiotis, D. et al. The effect of meteorological conditions and atmospheric composition in the occurrence and development of new particle formation (NPF) events in Europe. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 21, 3345–3370 (2021).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, X. et al. Relative humidity effect on the formation of highly oxidized molecules and new particles during monoterpene oxidation. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 19, 1555–1570 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Byrne, B. et al. Carbon emissions from the 2023 Canadian wildfires. Nature 633, 835–839 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lampilahti, A. et al. Insights into new particle formation in a Siberian boreal forest from nanoparticle ranking analysis. Aerosol Res. 3, 441–459 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kharuk, V. I. et al. Wildfires in the Siberian taiga. Ambio 50, 1953–1974 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, Z. et al. Role of atmospheric rivers in shaping long term Arctic moisture variability. Nat. Commun. 15, 5505 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dada, L. et al. A central arctic extreme aerosol event triggered by a warm air-mass intrusion. Nat. Commun. 13, 5290 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Motos, G. et al. Aerosol and dynamical contributions to cloud droplet formation in Arctic low-level clouds. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 23, 13941–13956 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Schmale, J., Zieger, P. & Ekman, A. M. L. Aerosols in current and future Arctic climate. Nat. Clim. Change 11, 95–105 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Leaitch, W. R. et al. Dimethyl sulfide control of the clean summertime Arctic aerosol and cloud. Elem. Sci. Anth. 1, 000017 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Regayre, L. A. et al. Identifying climate model structural inconsistencies allows for tight constraint of aerosol radiative forcing. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 23, 8749–8768 (2023).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Lehtipalo, K. et al. Multicomponent new particle formation from sulfuric acid, ammonia, and biogenic vapors. Sci. Adv. 4, eaau5363 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Sipilä, M. et al. Molecular-scale evidence of aerosol particle formation via sequential addition of HIO3. Nature 537, 532–534 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kolesar, K. R. et al. Effect of Prudhoe Bay emissions on atmospheric aerosol growth events observed in Utqiaġvik (Barrow), Alaska. Atmos. Environ. 152, 146–155 (2017).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kyrö, E.-M. et al. Trends in new particle formation in eastern Lapland, Finland: effect of decreasing sulfur emissions from Kola Peninsula. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14, 4383–4396 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, H. et al. High temperature sensitivity of Arctic isoprene emissions explained by sedges. Nat. Commun. 15, 6144 (2024).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Chang, R. Y.-W. et al. Relating atmospheric and oceanic DMS levels to particle nucleation events in the Canadian Arctic. J. Geophys. Res. 116, D00S03 (2011).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Meier, W., Fetterer, F., Windnagel, A., Stewart, J. S. & Stafford, T. NOAA/NSIDC climate data record of passive microwave sea ice concentration ver. 5. National Snow and Ice Data Center https://doi.org/10.7265/RJZB-PF78 (2024).

ERA5 monthly averaged data on single levels from 1940 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) https://doi.org/10.24381/CDS.F17050D7 (2019).

Beck, I. et al. Automated identification of local contamination in remote atmospheric composition time series. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 15, 4195–4224 (2022).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Croft, B. et al. Processes controlling the annual cycle of Arctic aerosol number and size distributions. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 3665–3682 (2016).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Karlsson, L. et al. Physical and chemical properties of cloud droplet residuals and aerosol particles during the Arctic Ocean 2018 expedition. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 127, e2021JD036383 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Väänänen, R. et al. Analysis of particle size distribution changes between three measurement sites in northern Scandinavia. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13, 11887–11903 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Aliaga, D. et al. Nanoparticle ranking analysis: determining new particle formation (NPF) event occurrence and intensity based on the concentration spectrum of formed (sub-5 nm) particles. Aerosol Res. 1, 81–92 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kulmala, M. et al. Quiet new particle formation in the atmosphere. Front. Environ. Sci. 10, 912385 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lampilahti, J. et al. A cross-correlation-based method for determining size-resolved particle growth rates. Aerosol Res. 3, 637–647 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Agrò, M. et al. Ventilation and low pollution enhancing new particle formation in Milan, Italy. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 26, 6521–6539 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Aliaga, D. et al. New particle formation dynamics in the central Andes: contrasting urban and mountaintop environments. Aerosol Res. 3, 15–44 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, T. et al. Differential characterization of air ions in boreal forest of Finland and a megacity of eastern China. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 25, 10027–10048 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Dal Maso, M. et al. Formation and growth of fresh atmospheric aerosols: eight years of aerosol size distribution data from SMEAR II, Hyytiälä, Finland. Boreal Environ. Res. 10, 323 (2005).


Google Scholar
 

Kulmala, M. et al. Measurement of the nucleation of atmospheric aerosol particles. Nat. Protoc. 7, 1651–1667 (2012).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Doelling, D. R. et al. Advances in geostationary-derived longwave fluxes for the CERES synoptic (SYN1deg) product. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 33, 503–521 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rienecker, M. M. et al. MERRA: NASA’s modern-era retrospective analysis for research and applications. J. Clim. 24, 3624–3648 (2011).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Smith, G. L. et al. Clouds and Earth Radiant Energy System (CERES), a review: past, present and future. Adv. Space Res. 48, 254–263 (2011).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Su, W., Charlock, T. P. & Rose, F. G. Deriving surface ultraviolet radiation from CERES surface and atmospheric radiation budget: Methodology. J. Geophys. Res. 110, (2005).

Young, S. A. et al. Extinction and optical depth retrievals for CALIPSO’s Version 4 data release. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 11, 5701–5727 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Didan, K. MODIS/terra vegetation indices monthly L3 global 1 km SIN Grid V061. NASA Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD13A3.061 (2021).

Sea ice concentration from 1978 to present derived from satellite observations. ECMWF https://doi.org/10.24381/CDS.3CD8B812 (2020).

Chen, T. & Guestrin, C. XGBoost: a scalable tree boosting system. In Proc. 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining 785–794 https://doi.org/10.1145/2939672.2939785 (ACM, 2016).

Choudhury, G. & Tesche, M. Estimating cloud condensation nuclei concentrations from CALIPSO lidar measurements. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 15, 639–654 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Choudhury, G. et al. Pristine oceans are a significant source of uncertainty in quantifying global cloud condensation nuclei. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 25, 3841–3856 (2025).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Choudhury, G. & Tesche, M. Assessment of CALIOP-derived CCN concentrations by in situ surface measurements. Remote Sens. 14, 3342 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Danabasoglu, G. et al. The Community Earth System Model Version 2 (CESM2). J. Adv. Model Earth Syst. 12, e2019MS001916 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Döscher, R. et al. The EC-Earth3 Earth system model for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6. Geosci. Model Dev. 15, 2973–3020 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hajima, T. et al. Development of the MIROC-ES2L Earth system model and the evaluation of biogeochemical processes and feedbacks. Geosci. Model Dev. 13, 2197–2244 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Seland, Ø et al. Overview of the Norwegian Earth System Model (NorESM2) and key climate response of CMIP6 DECK, historical, and scenario simulations. Geosci. Model Dev. 13, 6165–6200 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Sellar, A. A. et al. UKESM1: description and evaluation of the U.K. Earth system model. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst. 11, 4513–4558 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

ERA5-Land monthly averaged data from 1950 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) https://doi.org/10.24381/CDS.68D2BB30 (2019).

Chua, S. D. X. & Lehtipalo, K. Dataset for contrasting aerosol-cloud feedbacks across a warming Arctic. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22127460 (2026).