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<\/p>\nKATHMANDU: The origin of Earth occurred approximately 4.6 billion years ago. At that time, Earth lacked a biological environment. Initially, due to lightning strikes, volcanic heat, and ultraviolet radiation, inorganic elements such as hydrogen, methane, ammonia, and water vapor synthesized into amino acids and organic molecules. Proof of this was demonstrated in 1953 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey through an experiment conducted inside a simple glass jar, widely known as the Miller-Urey experiment. This proved that organic molecules are formed from the combination of inorganic elements.<\/p>\n
From this process, it is believed that unicellular life evolved approximately 3.8 billion years ago. That initial life form was single-celled. Following that, life on Earth remained confined to unicellular organisms for roughly 1.7 billion years. Initially, such single-celled organisms lacked a nucleus. In the course of time, unicellular organisms with a nucleus evolved approximately 1.6\u20132.1 billion years ago. Such organisms are referred to as eukaryotic organisms. From them, more complex cellular organizations gradually developed. Subsequently, around 1.5\u20131.6 billion years ago, unicellular animals and plants diverged.<\/p>\n
About 540 million years ago, an explosion in the evolutionary development of organisms occurred, known as the Cambrian Explosion. This took place entirely within the oceans.<\/p>\n
Following this, multicellular organisms evolved from unicellular ones approximately 1 billion years ago. The development of multicellularity paved the way for different cells to perform distinct functions within a single organism, allowing body structures to grow more complex. In the history of life on Earth, this very transformation laid the foundation for the later expansion of numerous branches of plants and animals. Subsequently, plant and animal lineages continued to evolve. Life on Earth then essentially spread and diversified across the aquatic world.<\/p>\n
The Cambrian Explosion<\/p>\n
Photosynthetic microorganisms and algae (aquatic plants\u2014algae and fungi) played a vital role in Earth\u2019s ecosystems. Around 540 million years ago, an explosion in the evolution of organisms took place, known as the Cambrian Explosion. It occurred entirely in the ocean. This phenomenon is extensively explained on pages 34\u201349 of the book Extinctions: How Life Survives, Adapts and Evolves authored by Michael J. Benton, published in 2023.<\/p>\n
Although primitive amphibians could walk on land, they were entirely dependent on water for reproduction, which prevented them from venturing into dry habitats.<\/p>\n
Following the evolution of aquatic animals, vertebrates such as fish evolved around 500 million years ago. Various branches of fish developed, and one lineage of these vertebrates adapted from water toward land, evolving into four-legged creatures on land approximately 410 million years ago. At that time, plants and small insects were also developing on land.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Board placed along the path to Mukkumlung (Pathibhara) in Taplejung. Photo: Kamal Maden.<\/p>\n
From that lineage, the branch of amphibians evolved approximately 365 million years ago. They began enclosing their eggs or offspring in special membranes or sacs. This protected the eggs or young of aquatic organisms from drying out outside of water. Consequently, this shift eliminated the obligation to rely on water for reproduction. Following this, new evolutionary possibilities opened up for terrestrial life, leading to the evolutionary radiation of amphibian life.<\/p>\n
From reptiles to mammals<\/p>\n
Although primitive amphibians could walk on land, they were entirely dependent on water for reproduction, which prevented them from venturing into dry habitats. Solving this problem, certain amphibians developed amniotic eggs featuring a hard shell and internal fluid that allowed them to lay eggs on land, leading to the evolution of the first reptiles approximately 340 million years ago. This revolutionary shift helped organisms disperse away from the water\u2019s edge into deep and dry land, where their skin became scaly and rough to prevent water loss through evaporation.<\/p>\n
Two-legged carnivorous dinosaurs initially developed feathers to keep their bodies warm, which later transformed into wings for flight.<\/p>\n
Subsequently, reptiles split into two main branches. From one group, dinosaurs emerged around 240 million years ago. From ecological and evolutionary perspectives, the primary reasons for dinosaurs becoming colossal were the abundant food resources available during that era, vast open ecological niches, and natural pressure for self-defense. The widespread availability of nutritious vegetation supplied herbivorous dinosaurs with sufficient energy to sustain massive body sizes, while generational adaptation against predators led to larger physical dimensions, which progressively drove predators to become massive as well.<\/p>\n
This biological development was fully supported by their efficient respiratory system\u2014similar to that of modern birds\u2014and a unique bone structure that was hollow and lightweight inside, making it biologically possible for them to maintain balance and move around effortlessly despite extreme weight.<\/p>\n
During the Jurassic period, when dinosaurs ruled the Earth, another branch of reptiles moved toward the evolution of birds. Two-legged carnivorous dinosaurs initially developed feathers to keep their bodies warm, which later transformed into wings for flight.<\/p>\n
More than 30 avian traits in theropod dinosaurs\u2014such as growing feathers, developing wings, and acquiring flight capability\u2014did not appear all at once; rather, they had been developing gradually long before.<\/p>\n
To facilitate flight, their bones became hollow and lightweight. The strongest evidence of this is the Archaeopteryx fossil, which exhibited both reptile-like teeth and bird-like wings. As noted by Michael Benton on pages 183\u2013185 of his book Extinctions: How Life Survives, Adapts and Evolves, the process of dinosaurs evolving into modern birds was not a sudden event, but the result of gradual and accelerated evolution that continued uninterrupted for over 50 million years.<\/p>\n
According to the book, more than 30 avian traits in theropod dinosaurs\u2014such as growing feathers, developing wings, and acquiring flight capability\u2014did not appear all at once; rather, they had been developing gradually long before. In this journey toward becoming birds, physical shrinkage played the most critical role, causing the bodies of these organisms to become small and light 150 times faster compared to other dinosaurs.<\/p>\n
As a result, their skull structure altered, brains expanded, teeth vanished to give way to lightweight beaks, and tails shortened. Feathers, initially used only for thermoregulation and attracting mates, eventually enabled gliding through the air and ultimately flapping wings to fly, marking the origin of true birds.<\/p>\n
Due to this precise and rapid physical transformation, when an asteroid impact annihilated the giant dinosaurs 66 million years ago, the avian ancestors survived. Explaining that day of dinosaur destruction in his book, Michael J. Benton notes that an asteroid roughly 10 kilometers wide struck the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula in Mexico approximately 66 million years ago.<\/p>\n
In the absence of sunlight, plants died and the food chain completely collapsed, wiping out giant non-avian dinosaurs and roughly 75 percent of all living species on Earth.<\/p>\n
The energy generated by this massive impact triggered global tsunamis and wildfires, while dispersing billions of tons of dust and sulfur particles into the atmosphere, blocking sunlight for years and causing a \u201cnuclear winter\u201d and acid rain across the globe.<\/p>\n
In the absence of sunlight, plants died and the food chain completely collapsed, wiping out giant non-avian dinosaurs and roughly 75 percent of all living species on Earth. According to Benton, this catastrophe proved to be an \u201cecological reset\u201d in Earth\u2019s history. Although it ended the age of dinosaurs, it provided a historic opportunity for small burrowing mammals and avian ancestors that had already undergone rapid physical transformation to adapt and flourish in a new world.<\/p>\n
Subsequently, small burrowing mammals survived. The surviving birds, meanwhile, successfully evolved into the more than 10,000 species seen today.<\/p>\n
Let us trace back further. Another branch of reptiles transformed into the synapsids group around 310 million years ago. Synapsids then converted into therapsids, and subsequently into cynodonts. From a branch of the cynodont lineage, early mammals began evolving around 210 million years ago. Early mammals were small in size, resembling shrews or mice. It was these very creatures that managed to survive during the cataclysm 66 million years ago.<\/p>\n
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<\/p>\n
A red panda spotted in Ilam district. Photo courtesy: Chungba Sherpa.<\/p>\n
Mammals and the family Ailuridae<\/p>\n
Today, approximately 6,400 species belonging to the class Mammalia are recorded worldwide. According to current mammalian diversity databases, mammals are classified into 167 families and 1,363 genera. Amidst such immense biodiversity, the family Ailuridae holds special significance, as its sole living representative today is the red panda, Ailurus fulgens. All others have become extinct.<\/p>\n
Fossil records trace the history of the family Ailuridae back approximately 25 million years. At one time, members of this family were distributed across the Northern Hemisphere in Europe, Asia, and North America. According to a 2010 paper titled Molecular and Morphological Evidence for Ailuridae and a Review of Its Genera by Michael Morlo and St\u00e9phane Peign\u00e9, fossils belonging to a total of eight genera and more than two dozen species have been discovered within this family. The only surviving genus is Ailurus.<\/p>\n
The red panda is not merely a rare wildlife species of today. Within its body lives tens of millions of years of biological history.<\/p>\n
Therefore, the red panda is not merely a rare wildlife species of today. Within its body lives tens of millions of years of biological history. As the last surviving representative of the family Ailuridae\u2014which once encompassed numerous genera and species\u2014the red panda is today confined to the Himalayan forests of Nepal, India, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. China holds nearly half of the total red panda population across the five countries. The red pandas there are slightly larger in size compared to those found here.<\/p>\n
Ancient ancestors<\/p>\n
According to studies of ancient geology and environment, there was a time when organisms of the family Ailuridae were spread across vast regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In particular, various species of this family maintained a dense and widespread presence across Eurasia (the combined landmass of Europe and Asia) and the continental region of North America. Fossils of nearly a dozen genera have been recovered. Among them, the genera discovered in Spain, France, Germany, the United States, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Russia (Siberia), Japan, and China include Ailurus, Parailurus, Magerictis, Pristinailurus, Simocyon, Alopecocyon, Protarctos, and Amphictis.<\/p>\n
Course to this historical spread, the genus that shares the closest physical and genetic proximity to the modern-day red panda is Parailurus. The word \u2018Parailurus\u2018 originates from Ancient Greek, where \u2018para\u2018 means \u2018near\u2019 and \u2018ailurus\u2018 means \u2018cat-like creature\u2019. Although physically resembling the red panda we see today, this creature was significantly larger, heavier, and built stronger than today\u2019s red panda.<\/p>\n
Extinction means that even if a creature vanishes from the world, a certain branch or descendant of it evolves into a new form or genus while enduring environmental shifts. Some, however, become completely extinct.<\/p>\n
This massive and powerful ancient ancestor, Parailurus, existed as a native creature primarily across the landmass of the North American continent between 5.3 million and 1.8 million years ago in a warm climate. During that epoch, landmasses of the Northern Hemisphere experienced warm and humid climate conditions. Between 3 million and 2.5 million years ago, temperatures on Earth plummeted, marking the onset of the Ice Age. Due to extreme cold, the forests and food sources necessary for Parailurus gradually vanished, and eventually, around 1.8 million years ago, this creature likely transitioned into another genus.<\/p>\n
Extinction means that even if a creature vanishes from the world, a certain branch or descendant of it evolves into a new form or genus while enduring environmental shifts. Some, however, become completely extinct.<\/p>\n
In the context of Parailurus, it must have transformed into another genus. However, its fossil has not been found. This is because fossils of the currently existing red panda dated older than 500,000\u2013700,000 years have not been discovered. During the period between 1.8 million and 500,000\u2013700,000 years ago, several other genera must have evolved and transformed into other genera alongside climate change.<\/p>\n
Fossils of ancient red pandas similar to Parailurus are preserved at the \u201cGray Fossil Site & Museum\u201d located in Tennessee, USA. There, fossil remains of Pristinailurus bristoli, closely related to the ancient ancestor of the red panda, are housed, and East Tennessee State University has published a comparative sketch of the physical structures of this ancestor and the modern red panda.<\/p>\n
When scientists conducted research using various cutting-edge techniques and carbon dating methods, this Chinese fossil was confirmed to be approximately 500,000\u2013700,000 years old (Middle Pleistocene epoch).<\/p>\n
As Parailurus was facing extinction in North America, an ancestor closer to the modern red panda than Parailurus had already expanded into Asia. According to archaeological and scientific discoveries to date, the oldest fossil fully matching and physically identical to the living red panda of the modern era was discovered in China during the 1970s\u20131980s. Teeth and jawbones found in this fossil are 100 percent identical to those of the modern red panda.<\/p>\n
When scientists conducted research using various cutting-edge techniques and carbon dating methods, this Chinese fossil was confirmed to be approximately 500,000\u2013700,000 years old (Middle Pleistocene epoch). What this discovery proves is that the red panda successfully navigated tens of millions of years of historical, geographical, and environmental fluctuations, witnessing the destruction of its ancient North American ancestors, and ultimately managed to preserve its lineage and existence into the modern era by finding refuge in the remote and protected Himalayan regions of Asia.<\/p>\n
Scientific Nomenclature<\/p>\n
The credit for bringing the red panda into the domain of modern science and providing it with a systematic scientific nomenclature goes to the renowned French zoologist Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Cuvier. In 1825, Cuvier conducted an in-depth study of a unique specimen collected and brought from the Himalayan region of South Asia. Observing the unique physical characteristics and cat-like flexibility of this creature, he assigned it the scientific name \u2018Ailurus fulgens\u2018.<\/p>\n
\u2018Ailurus\u2018 is borrowed from Ancient Greek, directly meaning \u2018cat-like animal\u2019. Similarly, the species epithet \u2018fulgens\u2018 is a Latin word meaning \u2018shining\u2019, \u2018fire-red\u2019, or \u2018radiant\u2019.<\/p>\n
In constructing this scientific name, he combined two different ancient languages. The genus name \u2018Ailurus\u2018 is borrowed from Ancient Greek, directly meaning \u2018cat-like animal\u2019. Similarly, the species epithet \u2018fulgens\u2018 is a Latin word meaning \u2018shining\u2019, \u2018fire-red\u2019, or \u2018radiant\u2019. This nomenclature was chosen in reference to the red panda\u2019s attractive reddish-brown fur and bright face.<\/p>\n
Nearly eight decades after the name \u2018Ailurus fulgens\u2018 was assigned in the scientific world, another specimen of the red panda was collected from the forests of Sichuan Province in China for scientific study in 1902. When experts performed a meticulous comparison between this new specimen brought from China and the pre-existing specimen from the Himalayan region, they discovered that the physical size of the Chinese red panda was slightly larger than that of the Himalayan red panda, alongside distinct differences in skull structure and color intensity.<\/p>\n
Due to those differences, scientists decided to classify the Chinese red panda as a separate subspecies. In honor of F. W. Styan, a famous English merchant and naturalist of that era who contributed significantly to the study of Chinese wildlife, the scientific name of this Chinese subspecies was designated as \u2018Ailurus fulgens styani\u2018. Here, the use of three words clearly indicates that it is a specific subspecies.<\/p>\n
The original red panda found in the Himalayan region of Nepal, India, and Bhutan automatically became a distinct subspecies, maintaining its full scientific name as \u2018Ailurus fulgens fulgens\u2018.<\/p>\n
With the introduction of the subspecies concept into red panda classification, a specific provision of the international rules governing animal scientific nomenclature\u2014the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature\u2014was automatically invoked. According to this rule, if a new subspecies is discovered within an established species and newly named, the original specimen discovered earlier (upon which the species was first named) automatically becomes a nominotypical subspecies, and when determining the updated name, the word representing the species name is repeated.<\/p>\n
Following this rule, the original red panda found in the Himalayan region of Nepal, India, and Bhutan automatically became a distinct subspecies, maintaining its full scientific name as \u2018Ailurus fulgens fulgens\u2018. This nomenclature system scientifically clarified that although there is only one red panda species globally, in terms of naming and geographical distribution, only two subspecies existed (Himalayan Red Panda and Chinese Red Panda).<\/p>\n
Genetic research<\/p>\n
According to traditional classification, the red panda had two subspecies. Science was making rapid strides in plant and animal taxonomy. After the structure of DNA was clarified in 1953, its study as genetic material accelerated. In the 1960s\u20131970s, genetic variations within proteins and DNA began to be utilized to study evolutionary relationships among organisms. Following the development of DNA testing and particularly PCR technology in the 1980s, it became possible to extract and study DNA even from minute samples.<\/p>\n
By the 1990s, DNA sequencing came to be widely utilized in animal identification and classification. In particular, specific genes within mitochondrial DNA were increasingly used to delineate relationships between closely related species. Furthermore, after 2003, the concept of DNA barcoding brought immense momentum to species identification. In animals, the mitochondrial gene named COI (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) is frequently used for identification.<\/p>\n
Rather than capturing and causing stress to red pandas directly, an eco-friendly scientific approach was adopted: collecting fecal samples of red pandas across habitats from China to Nepal, extracting high-quality DNA, and performing an in-depth study.<\/p>\n
American scientists had constructed a genetic phylogeny of the red panda back in 1995. Until that time, the red panda was considered closely related to the bear family. That study revealed that the red panda is closer to the raccoon family (Procyonidae) than to the bear family (Ursidae). Until then, some had placed the red panda in the bear family, others in the raccoon family, and some in the red panda\u2019s own family, Ailuridae. Subsequently, it was classified under Ailuridae.<\/p>\n
The story of genetic research on red pandas is even longer. Now, let us discuss a paper published in 2020, authored primarily by Arjun Thapa while affiliated with a university in China. That paper was published in the journal Global Ecology and Conservation under the title \u201cThe endangered red panda in Himalayas: Potential distribution and ecological habitat associates.\u201d<\/p>\n
In the study, rather than capturing and causing stress to red pandas directly, an eco-friendly scientific approach was adopted: collecting fecal samples of red pandas across habitats from China to Nepal, extracting high-quality DNA, and performing an in-depth study. The primary objective of this study was to measure the depth of the red panda\u2019s genetic sequence and determine the status of its genetic continuity.<\/p>\n
During the research, three to four highly surprising biogeographical facts came to light. The first among them was the geographic boundary separating the two subspecies. It turned out that the vast and historic Yalu Tsangpo River flowing through the Tibet region (known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River on the other side of the Himalayas) had divided the red pandas into two separate subspecies.<\/p>\n
According to the principles of biology, when no gene exchange occurs between two groups over a long period, they become genetically distinct organisms.<\/p>\n
Studying the mitochondrial COI gene found in the cellular organelle \u2018mitochondria\u2019 of red pandas living on this side and that side of the river revealed that the genetic structures of red pandas across the river had become completely distinct from one another. Secondly, no interbreeding or gene flow had occurred between these two groups across these two regions for the past 200,000 years. According to the principles of biology, when no gene exchange occurs between two groups over such a long period, they become genetically distinct organisms.<\/p>\n
Thirdly and most importantly, the divergence between these two groups was not limited to the subspecies level. There was a genetic difference at the species level itself. When measuring genetic distance using the \u201cFixation Index (FST),\u201d a result exceeding two percent generally leads to considering the two groups as separate species.<\/p>\n
For this reason, red pandas residing on either side of the the Yarlung Tsangpo River could no longer be regarded merely as two subspecies. They are, in fact, distinct species. Hence, both subspecies can be treated as two separate species, meaning they should be written as Ailurus fulgens and Ailurus styani.<\/p>\n
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<\/p>\n
Simocyon and the Red Panda.<\/p>\n
Consequently, the species names for the Himalayan Red Panda and the Chinese Red Panda will now be Ailurus fulgens and Ailurus styani, respectively. However, this fact has not yet been formally recognized and updated in textbooks by all global scientific organizations and international biological taxonomy bodies.<\/p>\n
Fourthly, this study brought forward another crucial fact with far-reaching implications for red panda conservation. The research indicated that compared to the Himalayan red pandas found in the Himalayan region, the Chinese red pandas found in China\u2019s territory possess significantly higher and robust genetic diversity. According to the universally accepted law of biology, the higher the genetic diversity within any animal population, the better equipped that species is to withstand natural disasters.<\/p>\n
Currently, out of the total remaining global red panda population, nearly half is safely residing as native populations within China\u2019s forests alone. Conversely, with lower genetic diversity among Himalayan red pandas, the future of their lineage stands at a biologically more sensitive and precarious crossroad.<\/p>\n
In terms of biological resilience, an organism with higher genetic diversity possesses greater capacity to battle diseases and environmental shifts, rendering its survival much stronger. It is precisely due to this high genetic diversity and robust survival capacity that the population of Chinese red pandas is likely greater than that of the Himalayan region.<\/p>\n
Currently, out of the total remaining global red panda population, nearly half is safely residing as native populations within China\u2019s forests alone. Conversely, with lower genetic diversity among Himalayan red pandas, the future of their lineage stands at a biologically more sensitive and precarious crossroad. In Nepal, not only are their habitats fragmented, but the government routinely grants approvals for development projects without paying attention to how to protect them in their habitats during project execution. A strong example of this is the Mukkumlung area in Taplejung. Red pandas exist there, but nothing has been written or done regarding how to protect them. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation under the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests and Environment\u2014which holds the responsibility to protect red pandas\u2014remains oblivious to this issue.<\/p>\n
A study conducted by Lucy A. Duer and Deniz Ayagoren Uluar was published in 2024 titled Missing links connect the phylogeographic structure of endangered red pandas, remaining as one species \u2013 Ailurus fulgens, and expediting conservation.<\/p>\n
DNA from extinct human species like Homo neanderthalensis and Homo denisova is present in modern humans, Homo sapiens.<\/p>\n
In this paper, the geographical boundary of red panda distribution differs from what was published in 2020. While the previous paper treated the Yarlung Tsangpo River as a strict boundary separating two species, this paper reports that Chinese red pandas were also found west of the aforementioned river. Hence, this paper does not explicitly claim that the Himalayan red panda and Chinese red panda are two separate species. However, it demonstrates that DNA is undergoing \u201cmixing.\u201d Nevertheless, the data extracted indicates that they could still be considered two distinct species.<\/p>\n
DNA from extinct human species like Homo neanderthalensis and Homo denisova is present in modern humans, Homo sapiens. The DNA sequencing difference between Homo neanderthalensis, Homo denisova, and Homo sapiens is less than 0.5 percent. On this basis, considering the Himalayan and Chinese red pandas as separate species appears to be appropriate.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"KATHMANDU: The origin of Earth occurred approximately 4.6 billion years ago. At that time, Earth lacked a biological…\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":621079,"comment_status":"","ping_status":"","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[7],"tags":[111,139,69,147],"class_list":["post-621078","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-science","tag-new-zealand","tag-newzealand","tag-nz","tag-science"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/621078","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=621078"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/621078\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/621079"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=621078"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=621078"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.newsbeep.com\/nz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=621078"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}