Medicinal plant species used in ethnoveterinary practices

In the study districts, a considerable number of ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species (64) were identified for managing livestock ailments. The record of such a good number of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants reflects their availability, cultural acceptability, affordability, and efficacy in treating livestock ailments34,35,36,37,38. Indigenous and local communities have developed unique knowledge systems that effectively guide the selection and use of diverse curative plants to address common livestock diseases39. Similar ethnoveterinary studies conducted in other regions of Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa have reported fewer medicinal plants used to treat livestock. For instance, Alemneh40 identified 30 medicinal plants, while Abebe41 documented 33, Asfaw et al.42 recorded 44, Kidane et al.43 listed 46. Giday and Teklehaymanot13 noted 49, while Oda et al. 44 identified 64 in Ethiopia. Additionally, 15 medicinal plants have been documented in Namibia 45, 31 in South Africa 46, 53 in Mozambique47, and 48 in Kenya48. Other studies in Ethiopia reported higher figures, such as Yineger et al.49 and Yigezu et al.50, each identifying 74 medicinal plants, and Hankiso et al.51 reporting 132 medicinal plants. Similarly, a greater number of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants have been documented in Morocco52, Uganda53, and Angola54, with 300, 209, and 89 medicinal plants, respectively.

The variations in the number of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants across different regions can be attributed to the diverse cultures and traditions of the local populations as well as the specific types of vegetation present in those areas43. Both the present and previous ethnoveterinary inventories underscore the crucial role of medicinal plants in managing various livestock ailments, particularly in areas where access to modern veterinary services is limited, costly, or inadequate43.

Regarding species-richness, Fabaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, Combretaceae, Malvaceae, and Moraceae families were found to be the dominant families in the ethnoveterinary healthcare systems of the study districts. This finding aligns with previous similar ethnoveterinary studies conducted in different regions of Ethiopia13,39,41,43,44,50, where these families were reported as important contributors to local ethnoveterinary practices. In a similar manner, Fabaceae was reported as the dominant family in different African countries45,47,54,55. The greater number of species from these families in the study areas can be attributed to their wide distribution and abundance in Combretum-Terminalia vegetation, which is the predominant vegetation type in the two districts. In addition, the Fabaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, and Malvaceae families are among the top 15 families of vascular plants in the Ethiopian flora56. This suggests that the preference for members of these families may be related to their availability, presence of bioactive compounds, and long-term familiarity of local communities with these herbal materials57.

In the study area, various growth forms of medicinal plants were utilized, with trees accounting for the highest proportion, followed by herbs. The frequent use of trees in ethnoveterinary medicine has also been documented in studies conducted across Ethiopia49,50,58. Although herbs ranked second in our findings, several previous studies indicated that the majority of ethnoveterinary medicine preparations in Ethiopia are derived from herbs14,44,49,59,60. This variation in the use of different growth forms of ethnoveterinary plants suggests the presence of distinct agroecological conditions in various regions of Ethiopia. The predominance of tree species in the study districts may be attributed to lowland areas that can resist drought.

Major ailments affecting livestock

Livestock is a vital asset for indigenous communities, providing cash income, food, transportation, draught power, and a means of wealth accumulation44. This is equally true in the Metema and Quara Districts. However, livestock populations, particularly cattle, are frequently affected by various ailments, including wounds, febrile illnesses, eye infections, diarrhea, miscarriages, and parasitic wound infections. These conditions are among the most prevalent and are commonly treated with herbal remedies in Ethiopia39,42,44, and elsewhere in Africa45,47,55.

The local communities in these districts possess a rich ethnoveterinary knowledge base that relies on medicinal plants for generations to treat livestock. This traditional knowledge fosters a sense of security when herbal remedies are used. The veterinary services available in kebeles (the lowest government administrative units) often lack adequate equipment, medicines, and qualified personnel. Consequently, local communities continue to rely on low-cost, readily available, and effective ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. Additionally, the proximity of these districts to Sudan facilitated a notable exchange of indigenous knowledge regarding ethnoveterinary practices. There are also instances of illegal importation of modern veterinary medicines for livestock treatment. Such activities may contribute to the preservation of traditional livestock healing practices and promote knowledge-sharing among communities. The presence of 63 medicinal plant species further underscores the potential of the study area as a valuable ethnoveterinary resource pool.

Medicinal plant parts, use conditions, and administration routes

Our findings indicate that leaves are the most commonly used plant parts for remedy preparations in the study districts. This aligns with previous research conducted among various ethnic groups in Ethiopia13,42,43,49 and other regions globally52,61,62,63. The primary reason for the preference for leaves by traditional medicine practitioners is their accessibility and the role they play in conserving plant species, thereby minimizing the risk of extinction64. The use of leaves, whether as standalone remedies or in combination with other parts, promotes the sustainable utilization of medicinal resources, as they are renewable compared to roots, stems, and stem bark. However, roots, stem bark, and stems still represented a large portion of the remedy preparations in the study areas (Fig. 3). Reliance on these parts poses serious risks to the survival of medicinal plant species, highlighting the need for more sustainable harvesting practices.

The results indicate that freshly harvested parts of medicinal plants are used for the preparation of traditional veterinary medicine. This practice of utilizing fresh plant materials is common across various cultural communities in Ethiopia14,39,60, and elsewhere in Africa48,52,53. Fresh materials often exhibit greater efficacy than dried ones60. This increased potency may be attributed to certain volatile compounds that evaporate when exposed to intense sunlight, leading to a reduction in their effectiveness13. Seeds and fruits are the main dried parts used for veterinary remedy preparation. Additionally, the shading of leaves by many tree species during the dry season may contribute to reliance on other freshly available plant parts, such as roots, stems, and bark, in the search for fresh medicinal materials in the study areas.

The oral route was the most frequently used method for administering remedies to treat livestock ailments. This preference may be attributed to the prevalence of diseases affecting internal organs, such as diarrhea, Newcastle disease, and abdominal bloating. The oral administration of remedies facilitates a rapid physiological response to the pathogens responsible for these diseases, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the treatments. Consistent with the current study, numerous ethnobotanical studies have documented oral administration as the predominant route in Ethiopia13,50,58,65 and beyond62.

Modes of remedy preparation and application

The current findings indicate that crushing and drenching are the most employed methods for preparing ethnoveterinary remedies, closely followed by crushing, pasting, and tying. This observation aligns with the results of previous studies40,42. The choice of preparation method depends on the type of medicinal plant targeted, the specific plant used, the nature of the disease, and the types of livestock being treated48. In addition, these practices may be influenced by the lifelong experiences of traditional healers who have developed effective ethnoveterinary regimens over time39.

Most remedies (90.6%) were prepared using a single medicinal plant, which aligns with findings from various cultural groups in Ethiopia13,36,39,65 and other countries53,57,66. The preference for mono-preparations in veterinary remedies may stem from the confidence, experience, and extensive ethnoveterinary knowledge of farmers and traditional healers in selecting specific remedies53. However, 9.4% of the remedies in the current study were prepared as concoctions, involving the mixing of two or more medicinal plants, which echoes the findings from studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia67.

Cold water has emerged as the primary solvent for extraction in the preparation of livestock remedies. This finding aligns with ethnoveterinary studies conducted in Ethiopia39,42,65 and internationally53, where cold water is preferred for effective extraction of active ingredients from medicinal plants used in managing livestock diseases. Conversely, other studies from around the world62,63,68 have indicated that decoction in boiling water is a prominent method for preparing ethnoveterinary remedies. In addition to herbal materials and cold water, non-plant substances such as salt, warm water, milk, table salt, saliva, and butter are also significant components in the ethnoveterinary practices of the study area. These substances enhance solubility, improve palatability, and serve as vehicles for the intake or topical application of treatments. The incorporation of non-plant materials in ethnoveterinary medicine preparation is not unique to this study area; it is a common practice among various ethnic groups in Ethiopia13,50 and other regions globally53,66.

Widely used medicinal plants and types of livestock treated

The analysis of use reports revealed that certain ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were more widely employed than others in the study areas. The most popular plants were Piliostigma thonningii, Ximenia americana, Carissa spinarum, Grewia ferruginea, and Ziziphus spina-christi. The wide acceptance of these plants in ethnoveterinary medicine could be attributed to their proven efficacy, abundant availability, and long history of use in traditional medicine, as previously reported57. However, the frequency of citations does not necessarily correspond to the effectiveness of plants in the treatment of ailments. Some ethnoveterinary knowledge about medicinal plants is widespread, whereas other information is more localized and specific to certain communities, family lines, or individuals69. Plants with low-use reports might be in the custody of a few traditional healer specialists, which means that they could be at risk of being overlooked or lost. Additionally, reports of low use of medicinal plants might also indicate that the indigenous knowledge associated with them is in danger of being lost.

The majority of ethnoveterinary plants are utilized primarily for treating cattle ailments, while only a limited number are employed for goats, sheep, equines, dogs, and poultry. This focus on cattle can be attributed to several factors: the higher incidence of diseases affecting cattle; the substantial cattle population, partly due to seasonal migrations to Metema and Quara districts in search of grazing land; and the strong cultural and economic ties between cattle and indigenous communities. Similar trends have been observed among other socio-cultural groups, indicating a significant reliance on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants for cattle treatment in Ethiopia13,35,37,39,44,70, and in other African countries like Angola54, Kenya48, while the use of medicinal plants commonly for sheep was reported in Algeria68.

Multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants

The results of a direct matrix ranking exercise indicated the presence of several multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in the study area, including Ziziphus spina-christi, Piliostigma thonningii, and Grewia ferruginea, which had the highest values. This suggests that these plants are being overexploited for medicinal and non-medicinal purposes. The medicinal use of these plants is often destructive, primarily involving the harvesting of the stem bark and roots for ethnoveterinary applications. In addition to their medicinal uses, these multipurpose plants are frequently overharvested for construction materials, furniture, livestock forage, fuelwood, farm implements, and fencing. Such practices significantly contribute to the depletion of these species in the study area. Consequently, the findings underscore the urgent need for conservation efforts coupled with awareness campaigns to protect the rapidly declining population of multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. Similar patterns of exploitation of multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants have been documented in other regions of Ethiopia42 and beyond71.

Knowledge of the people on medicinal plants

In the study areas, significant statistical differences in knowledge of ethno-therapeutic practices for protecting livestock health were observed between key and general informants, as well as among informants from the Metema and Quara districts, various age groups, and different ethnic backgrounds. However, no significant differences were identified between locals and settlers, males and females, or literate and illiterate informants.

The higher number of medicinal plants cited by key informants can be attributed to their extensive and lifelong experience in utilizing these plants for treating livestock ailments. These findings align with previous ethnoveterinary research conducted in Ethiopia39,41,42, which similarly identified significant differences in medicinal plant knowledge between key and general informants.

The non-significant statistical difference observed between the two genders indicates that both men and women in the Metema and Quara districts possess knowledge of medicinal plant use. However, men demonstrated higher levels of medicinal plant knowledge, which may be linked to the traditional flow of information predominantly along male lines in the country72 and the responsibility typically assigned to males in livestock management43. Similar findings have been reported in other ethnoveterinary inventories across Ethiopia39,41,65.

A comparison of medicinal plants cited by the three age groups revealed that elderly respondents identified a greater number of ethnoveterinary plant species on average than adults and younger individuals, with these differences being statistically significant. These findings align with those reported by Lulekal et al.39, Yigezu et al.50 and Misganaw34. The enhanced knowledge among elderly respondents may be attributed to their extensive experience, deep connection to the natural ecosystem and livestock, and strong belief in the healing power of medicinal plants.

The study revealed that there was no significant statistical difference between literate and illiterate individuals in the number of medicinal plants cited, indicating a free sharing of knowledge for ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. However, there was no agreement on this matter, with some reports suggesting that illiterates are more knowledgeable than literates39,41,44, while others indicate that literates are more knowledgeable than illiterates51. This disparity in findings highlights the complex nature of ethnoveterinary knowledge and the importance of considering numerous factors, such as literacy levels when studying and preserving traditional practices.

The non-significant statistical differences observed between settlers and local inhabitants regarding their knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants suggest that both groups freely share their knowledge. However, this trend does not hold for medicinal plants used to treat human ailments; a study conducted in the same districts indicated that locals possess significantly more knowledge than settlers73. These findings imply that the secrecy surrounding medicinal knowledge is more pronounced in the context of human medicine compared to ethnoveterinary practices.

In the two study districts, the Quara community exhibited significantly greater knowledge of medicinal plants compared to their Metema counterparts. This difference may be attributed to the presence of two distinct agroecological zones—midland and lowland—in the Quara district, which contributed to a higher diversity and citation of medicinal plants.

The Agew ethnic group demonstrated the highest level of knowledge regarding ethnoveterinary medicinal plants compared to other ethnic groups in the study areas. This finding aligns with several previous studies conducted in Ethiopia73,74 and internationally75, highlighting that the diversity of medicinal plant knowledge is often shaped by the ethnicity and cultural backgrounds of communities. These insights emphasize the importance of considering ethnic and cultural contexts when documenting and understanding traditional medicinal plant knowledge.

Trends in time for ethnoveterinary usage and conservation status of the mentioned species

Informants have reported an increasing trend in the ethnoveterinary use of medicinal plants in the study area. This trend is attributed to the efficacy of traditional plants, the inaccessibility and high cost of modern pharmaceuticals, and a lack of qualified professionals in the region.

Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Ethiopia and Africa have significant potential for improving livestock health. Nevertheless, the collection and dissemination of information regarding these plants faces challenges related to documentation, conservation, and cultural transmission21,44,50,51,54,76. A comprehensive approach for data collection and dissemination concerning ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Ethiopia and Africa is necessary. This approach should include systematic documentation of traditional knowledge, scientific validation of plant efficacy and safety, community-based conservation initiatives, integration with modern veterinary practices, and the promotion of awareness and knowledge sharing. By addressing these components, valuable knowledge and resources associated with ethnoveterinary medicinal plants can be preserved and sustainably utilized for the benefit of both human and animal health.

Analysis of abundance categories, derived from focus group discussions, revealed that eight plant species (12.5%) were classified as having high abundance, 33 species (51.5%) as medium abundance, and 23 species (36%) as low abundance. Most informants acknowledged a decline in the abundance of certain species in recent years, attributing this trend to anthropogenic activities, such as the expansion of agricultural lands, utilization of construction materials, furniture production, livestock forage, farm implements, medicinal applications, fire burning, insecticide use, and climatic changes.

Pharmacological values of selected medicinal plants

The pharmacological significance of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants has increasingly captured the interest of traditional medicine, particularly due to their diverse therapeutic applications. Among the 64 therapeutic ethnoveterinary medicinal plants documented in this study, the ten most frequently cited exhibited notable pharmacological properties (Table 7). Consequently, our findings underscore the necessity for future pharmacological investigations to scientifically validate these traditional remedies. Such validation could facilitate their integration into formal veterinary practices, thereby enabling the treatment of a broad spectrum of health issues.

Table 7 Review of the current pharmacological knowledge of the ethnoveterinary medicinal plants with the highest use reports.Novel ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and uses

The current study was compared with previous ethnoveterinary research conducted in Ethiopia and other African countries. This comparison identified 14 novel medicinal plant species, constituting 22% of the total, and 82 new applications, representing 67% of the total, which has not been previously documented (Table 8). Comparison of the ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of Southwestern Angola with other African countries result in more species (30 species, 58% of the total number of species) compared to the current report54.

Table 8 New species and uses compared to literature; (citations by informants).

These findings underscore the need for further investigation and documentation of medicinal plants in unexplored African areas, thereby making a substantial contribution to African ethnoveterinary medicine. Additionally, the study emphasized the importance of recording new ethnobotanical information for known medicinal plants. Besides lack of documentation, the uniqueness of 14 novel findings is largely linked to the limited geographical range of the species examined in Africa. For example, Ampelocissus schimperiana and Combretum hartmannianum are exclusively found in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan. Crinum abyssinicum is present in Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan, whereas Moringa stenopetala is found in Kenya in addition to Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan.