Altug, H., Oh, S.-H., Maier, S. A. & Homola, J. Advances and applications of nanophotonic biosensors. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 5–16 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kabashin, A. V., Kravets, V. G. & Grigorenko, A. N. Label-free optical biosensing: going beyond the limits. Chem. Soc. Rev. 52, 6554–6585 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Haes, A. J. & Duyne, R. P. V. A nanoscale optical biosensor: sensitivity and selectivity of an approach based on the localized surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy of triangular silver nanoparticles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124, 10596–10604 (2002).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zijlstra, P., Paulo, P. M. R. & Orrit, M. Optical detection of single non-absorbing molecules using the surface plasmon resonance of a gold nanorod. Nat. Nanotechnol. 7, 379–382 (2012).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Shen, Y. et al. Plasmonic gold mushroom arrays with refractive index sensing figures of merit approaching the theoretical limit. Nat. Commun. 4, 2381 (2013).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sreekanth, K. V. et al. Extreme sensitivity biosensing platform based on hyperbolic metamaterials. Nat. Mater. 15, 621–627 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhan, C., Liu, B.-W., Tian, Z.-Q. & Ren, B. Determining the interfacial refractive index via ultrasensitive plasmonic sensors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 10905–10909 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Park, J.-H. et al. Symmetry-breaking-induced plasmonic exceptional points and nanoscale sensing. Nat. Phys. 16, 462–468 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, Z. et al. Customizing 2.5D out-of-plane architectures for robust plasmonic bound-states-in-the-continuum metasurfaces. Adv. Sci. 10, 2206236 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Dolia, V. et al. Very-large-scale-integrated high quality factor nanoantenna pixels. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 1290–1298 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Rodrigo, D. et al. Mid-infrared plasmonic biosensing with graphene. Science 349, 165–168 (2015).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Leitis, A. et al. Angle-multiplexed all-dielectric metasurfaces for broadband molecular fingerprint retrieval. Sci. Adv. 5, eaaw2871 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhou, H. et al. Dynamic construction of refractive index-dependent vibrations using surface plasmon-phonon polaritons. Nat. Commun. 14, 7316 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jia, D. et al. Ultrasensitive infrared spectroscopy via vibrational modulation of plasmonic scattering from a nanocavity. Sci. Adv. 10, eadn8255 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Biswas, A. et al. Nanoplasmonic aptasensor for sensitive, selective, and real-time detection of dopamine from unprocessed whole blood. Sci. Adv. 10, eadp7460 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bi, X., Czajkowsky, D. M., Shao, Z. & Ye, J. Digital colloid-enhanced Raman spectroscopy by single-molecule counting. Nature 628, 771–775 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Balaur, E. et al. Colorimetric histology using plasmonically active microscope slides. Nature 598, 65–71 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, R. et al. Metasurface-driven and nanomaterial-coupled plasmonic biosensor for the rapid and quantitative clinical identification of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 variants. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2306145 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Li, F. et al. Affinity exploration of SARS-CoV-2 RBD variants to mAb-functionalized plasmonic metasurfaces for label-free immunoassay boosting. ACS Nano 17, 3383–3393 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Holze, J., Lauber, F., Soler, S., Kostenis, E. & Weindl, G. Label-free biosensor assay decodes the dynamics of Toll-like receptor signaling. Nat. Commun. 15, 9554 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Huhn, A. et al. The molecular reach of antibodies crucially underpins their viral neutralisation capacity. Nat. Commun. 16, 338 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Barth, I. & Lee, H. Nanophotonic sensing and label-free imaging of extracellular vesicles. Light Sci. Appl. 14, 177 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kravets, V. G., Kabashin, A. V., Barnes, W. L. & Grigorenko, A. N. Plasmonic surface lattice resonances: a review of properties and applications. Chem. Rev. 118, 5912–5951 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Jin, J. et al. Topologically enabled ultrahigh-Q guided resonances robust to out-of-plane scattering. Nature 574, 501–504 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jahani, Y. et al. Imaging-based spectrometer-less optofluidic biosensors based on dielectric metasurfaces for detecting extracellular vesicles. Nat. Commun. 12, 3246 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kühner, L. et al. Radial bound states in the continuum for polarization-invariant nanophotonics. Nat. Commun. 13, 4992 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hu, J. et al. Rapid genetic screening with high quality factor metasurfaces. Nat. Commun. 14, 4486 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kang, M., Liu, T., Chan, C. T. & Xiao, M. Applications of bound states in the continuum in photonics. Nat. Rev. Phys. 5, 659–678 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Liang, Y., Tsai, D. P. & Kivshar, Y. From local to nonlocal high-Q plasmonic metasurfaces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 133, 053801 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Luchansky, M. S. & Bailey, R. C. High-Q optical sensors for chemical and biological analysis. Anal. Chem. 84, 793–821 (2012).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Pitruzzello, G. Optical biosensors towards the clinic. Nat. Photonics 18, 1126–1128 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kühne, J. et al. Fabrication robustness in BIC metasurfaces. Nanophotonics 10, 4305–4312 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Won, R. Plasmonics commercialized? Nat. Photonics 18, 895–897 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, Y. et al. Momentum-space imaging spectroscopy for the study of nanophotonic materials. Sci. Bull. 66, 824–838 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Aigner, A. et al. Plasmonic bound states in the continuum to tailor light-matter coupling. Sci. Adv. 8, eadd4816 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Koshelev, K., Lepeshov, S., Liu, M., Bogdanov, A. & Kivshar, Y. Asymmetric metasurfaces with high-Q resonances governed by bound states in the continuum. Phys. Rev. Lett. 121, 193903 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, Y. et al. Can weak chirality induce strong coupling between resonant states?. Phys. Rev. Lett. 128, 146102 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Weber, T. et al. Intrinsic strong light–matter coupling with self-hybridized bound states in the continuum in van der Waals metasurfaces. Nat. Mater. 22, 970–976 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wen, L., Xu, R., Mi, Y. & Lei, Y. Multiple nanostructures based on anodized aluminium oxide templates. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12, 244–250 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, L. et al. Aluminium surface work hardening enables multi-scale 3D lithography. Nat. Mater. 24, 39–47 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Li, C.-Y. et al. Observation of inhomogeneous plasmonic field distribution in a nanocavity. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 922–926 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ward, D. R., Hüser, F., Pauly, F., Cuevas, J. C. & Natelson, D. Optical rectification and field enhancement in a plasmonic nanogap. Nat. Nanotechnol. 5, 732–736 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sheinfux, H. H. et al. High-quality nanocavities through multimodal confinement of hyperbolic polaritons in hexagonal boron nitride. Nat. Mater. 23, 499–505 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Vassiliev, V. & Sumetsky, M. High Q-factor reconfigurable microresonators induced in side-coupled optical fibres. Light Sci. Appl. 12, 197 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Prasad, J. et al. Plasmonic core–satellite assemblies as highly sensitive refractive index sensors. J. Phys. Chem. C 119, 5577–5582 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cai, J. et al. Solution-processed large-area gold nanocheckerboard metasurfaces on flexible plastics for plasmonic biomolecular sensing. Adv. Opt. Mater. 7, 1900516 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cetin, A. E. et al. Handheld high-throughput plasmonic biosensor using computational on-chip imaging. Light Sci. Appl. 3, e122 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yoo, D. et al. Plasmonic split-trench resonator for trapping and sensing. ACS Nano 15, 6669–6677 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cetin, A. E. et al. Plasmonic nanohole arrays on a robust hybrid substrate for highly sensitive label-free biosensing. ACS Photonics 2, 1167–1174 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, J. et al. All-dielectric crescent metasurface sensor drivenby bound states in the continuum. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2104652 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yesilkoy, F. et al. Ultrasensitive hyperspectral imaging and biodetection enabled by dielectric metasurfaces. Nat. Photonics 13, 390–396 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Gupta, T. D. et al. Self-assembly of nanostructured glass metasurfaces via templated fluid instabilities. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 320–327 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Shen, Y. et al. Ultrasmooth gold nanogroove arrays: ultranarrow plasmon resonators with linewidth down to 2 nm and their applications in refractive index sensing. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2108741 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Luo, M. et al. High-sensitivity optical sensors empowered by quasi-bound states in the continuum in a hybrid metal–dielectric metasurface. ACS Nano 18, 6477–6486 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Conteduca, D. et al. Dielectric nanohole array metasurface for high-resolution near-field sensing and imaging. Nat. Commun. 12, 3293 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, Z. et al. Phase interrogation sensor based on all-dielectric BIC metasurface. Nano Lett. 23, 10441–10448 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Watanabe, K. & Iwanaga, M. Nanogap enhancement of the refractometric sensitivity at quasi-bound states in the continuum in all-dielectric metasurfaces. Nanophotonics 12, 99–109 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Qiu, S., Zhang, H., Shi, Z., Li, H. & Zhou, Z.-K. Ultrasensitive refractive index sensing based on hybrid high-Q metasurfaces. J. Phys. Chem. C 127, 8263–8270 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zheng, Y. et al. High quality-factor all-dielectric metacavity for label-free biosensing. Adv. Sci. 12, 2410125 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Suebka, S., McLeod, E. & Su, J. Ultra-high-Q free-space coupling to microtoroid resonators. Light Sci. Appl. 13, 75 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Im, H. et al. Template-stripped smooth Ag nanohole arrays with silica shells for surface plasmon resonance biosensing. ACS Nano 5, 6244–6253 (2011).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lee, K.-L. et al. Enhancing surface plasmon detection using template-stripped gold nanoslit arrays on plastic films. ACS Nano 6, 2931–2939 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Jia, P., Jiang, H., Sabarinathan, J. & Yang, J. Plasmonic nanohole array sensors fabricated by template transfer with improved optical performance. Nanotechnology 24, 195501 (2013).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ye, X. et al. Multi-biomarker combination detection system for diagnosis and classification of dry eye disease by imaging of a multi-channel metasurface. Biosens. Bioelectron. 248, 115933 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, M. et al. Ultrasensitive molecular detection at subpicomolar concentrations by the diffraction pattern imaging with plasmonic metasurfaces and convex holographic gratings. Adv. Sci. 9, 2201682 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Conteduca, D., Quinn, S. D. & Krauss, T. F. Dielectric metasurface for high-precision detection of large unilamellar vesicles. J. Opt. 23, 114002 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Bolognesi, M. et al. A Fully Integrated miniaturized optical biosensor for fast and multiplexing plasmonic detection of high- and low-molecular-weight analytes. Adv. Mater. 35, 2208719 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bolognesi, M. et al. Integrated nanohole array surface plasmon resonance sensing device using a dual-wavelength source. J. Micromech. Microeng. 21, 115001 (2011).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Crosby, D. et al. Early detection of cancer. Science 375, eaay9040 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kalluri, R. & LeBleu, V. S. The biology, function, and biomedical applications of exosomes. Science 367, eaau6977 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Pan, S. et al. Extracellular vesicle drug occupancy enables real-time monitoring of targeted cancer therapy. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 734–742 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, X. et al. Exosome-templated nanoplasmonics for multiparametric molecular profiling. Sci. Adv. 6, eaba2556 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhao, H. et al. A hydrogel-based mechanical metamaterial for the interferometric profiling of extracellular vesicles in patient samples. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7, 135–148 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yi, Y. et al. Nanopore-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for cancer biomarker detection. Nat. Nanotechnol. 20, 1079–1086 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sun, J. Ultrasensitive biosensing by radiative Q factor modulation in strongly coupled 3D BIC metasurfaces. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19218509 (2026).