Schmid, H. Multi-ferroic magnetoelectrics. Ferroelectrics 162, 317–338 (1994).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Fiebig, M., Lottermoser, T., Meier, D. & Trassin, M. The evolution of multiferroics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 1, 16046 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bibes, M. Nanoferronics is a winning combination. Nat. Mater. 11, 354–357 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hill, N. A. Why are there so few magnetic ferroelectrics? J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 6694–6709 (2000).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Heron, J. T. et al. Deterministic switching of ferromagnetism at room temperature using an electric field. Nature 516, 370–373 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Khomskii, D. I. Multiferroics: Different ways to combine magnetism and ferroelectricity. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 306, 1–8 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, J. et al. Epitaxial BiFeO3 multiferroic thin film heterostructures. Science 299, 1719–1722 (2003).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kimura, T. et al. Magnetic control of ferroelectric polarization. Nature 426, 55–58 (2003).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cheong, S.-W. & Mostovoy, M. Multiferroics: a magnetic twist for ferroelectricity. Nat. Mater. 6, 13–20 (2007).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lee, J.-U. et al. Ising-type magnetic ordering in atomically thin FePS3. Nano Lett. 16, 7433–7438 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Gong, C. et al. Discovery of intrinsic ferromagnetism in two-dimensional van der Waals crystals. Nature 546, 265–269 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Huang, B. et al. Layer-dependent ferromagnetism in a van der Waals crystal down to the monolayer limit. Nature 546, 270–273 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Deng, Y. et al. Gate-tunable room-temperature ferromagnetism in two-dimensional Fe3GeTe2. Nature 563, 94–99 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Fei, Z. et al. Two-dimensional itinerant ferromagnetism in atomically thin Fe3GeTe2. Nat. Mater. 17, 778–782 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Seo, J. et al. Nearly room temperature ferromagnetism in a magnetic metal-rich van der Waals metal. Sci. Adv. 6, eaay8912 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

May, A. F. et al. Ferromagnetism near room temperature in the cleavable van der Waals crystal Fe5GeTe2. ACS Nano 13, 4436–4442 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, X. et al. Room-temperature intrinsic ferromagnetism in epitaxial CrTe2 ultrathin films. Nat. Commun. 12, 2492 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, M. & Zeng, X. C. Intrinsic ferroelasticity and/or multiferroicity in two-dimensional phosphorene and phosphorene analogues. Nano Lett. 16, 3236–3241 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jiang, S., Li, L., Wang, Z., Mak, K. F. & Shan, J. Controlling magnetism in 2D CrI3 by electrostatic doping. Nat. Nanotechnol. 13, 549–553 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, R. et al. Room-temperature multiferroicity in sliding van der Waals semiconductors with sub-0.3 V switching. Nat. Commun. 16, 3648 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hu, Y. et al. Extendable piezo/ferroelectricity in nonstoichiometric 2D transition metal dichalcogenides. Nat. Commun. 14, 8470 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, X. et al. Electrical and magnetic anisotropies in van der Waals multiferroic CuCrP2S6. Nat. Commun. 14, 840 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hu, Q. et al. Ferrielectricity controlled widely-tunable magnetoelectric coupling in van der Waals multiferroics. Nat. Commun. 15, 3029 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, K. et al. Near-room-temperature ferromagnetic 1T Nb1−xCrxTe2 from doping-induced phase transition of 1T’NbTe2. Sci. China Mater. 68, 2517–2525 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Io, W. F. et al. Direct observation of intrinsic room-temperature ferroelectricity in 2D layered CuCrP2S6. Nat. Commun. 14, 7304 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Gong, C., Kim, E. M., Wang, Y., Lee, G. & Zhang, X. Multiferroicity in atomic van der Waals heterostructures. Nat. Commun. 10, 2657 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sun, W. et al. Controlling bimerons as skyrmion analogues by ferroelectric polarization in 2D van der Waals multiferroic heterostructures. Nat. Commun. 11, 5930 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Eom, J. et al. Voltage control of magnetism in Fe3−xGeTe2/In2Se3 van der Waals ferromagnetic/ferroelectric heterostructures. Nat. Commun. 14, 5605 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yang, W. et al. Large and multistate magnetoresistance in 2D van der Waals multiferroic tunnel junctions. Sci. China Mater. 68, 1622–1629 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yu, X., Zhang, X. & Wang, J. Fully electrically controlled van der Waals multiferroic tunnel junctions. ACS Nano 17, 25348–25356 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, Y. et al. Coexistence of ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity in 2D van der Waals multiferroic. Nat. Commun. 15, 8616 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jiang, Y. et al. Dilemma in optical identification of single-layer multiferroics. Nature 619, E40–E43 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Song, T. & Xu, X. The future of 2D spintronics. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. 1, 696–697 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Schubert, M., Kühne, P., Darakchieva, V. & Hofmann, T. Optical Hall effect — model description: tutorial. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 33, 1553–1568 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Argyres, P. N. Theory of the Faraday and Kerr effects in ferromagnetics. Phys. Rev. 97, 334–345 (1955).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Mak, K. F., Shan, J. & Ralph, D. C. Probing and controlling magnetic states in 2D layered magnetic materials. Nat. Rev. Phys. 1, 646–661 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Sato, K. Measurement of magneto-optical Kerr effect using piezo-birefringent modulator. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 20, 2403 (1981).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Song, T. et al. Direct visualization of magnetic domains and moiré magnetism in twisted 2D magnets. Science 374, 1140–1144 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, B. et al. Van der Waals epitaxial growth of air-stable CrSe2 nanosheets with thickness-tunable magnetic order. Nat. Mater. 20, 818–825 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Jiang, S., Shan, J. & Mak, K. F. Electric-field switching of two-dimensional van der Waals magnets. Nat. Mater. 17, 406–410 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Huang, B. et al. Electrical control of 2D magnetism in bilayer CrI3. Nat. Nanotechnol. 13, 544–548 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, Z. et al. Observation of intrinsic crystal phase in bare few-layer CrI3. Nanophotonics 11, 4409–4417 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Guo, K. et al. Layer dependence of stacking order in nonencapsulated few-layer CrI3. Sci. China Mater. 63, 413–420 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Park, J.-G. Coexisting ferro-antiferroelectricity in van der Waals NiI2. Sci. China Mater. 68, 1684–1685 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, H. et al. Cavity-enhanced linear dichroism in a van der Waals antiferromagnet. Nat. Photon. 16, 311–317 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, Q. et al. Observation of giant optical linear dichroism in a zigzag antiferromagnet FePS3. Nano Lett. 21, 6938–6945 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ni, Z., Huang, N., Haglund, A. V., Mandrus, D. G. & Wu, L. Observation of giant surface second-harmonic generation coupled to nematic orders in the van der Waals antiferromagnet FePS3. Nano Lett. 22, 3283–3288 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lee, J.-W., Kim, J., Kim, S.-K., Jeong, J.-R. & Shin, S.-C. Full vectorial spin-reorientation transition and magnetization reversal study in ultrathin ferromagnetic films using magneto-optical Kerr effects. Phys. Rev. B 65, 144437 (2002).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, C. et al. Air-stable 2D Cr5Te8 nanosheets with thickness-tunable ferromagnetism. Adv. Mater. 34, 2107512 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Su, J. et al. Air-stable 2D intrinsic ferromagnetic Ta3FeS6 with four months durability. Adv. Sci. 7, 2001722 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Tang, M. et al. Continuous manipulation of magnetic anisotropy in a van der Waals ferromagnet via electrical gating. Nat. Electron. 6, 28–36 (2023).


Google Scholar
 

Kajale, S. N. et al. Current-induced switching of a van der Waals ferromagnet at room temperature. Nat. Commun. 15, 1485 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ermolaev, G. A. et al. Giant optical anisotropy in transition metal dichalcogenides for next-generation photonics. Nat. Commun. 12, 854 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Mao, N. et al. Optical anisotropy of black phosphorus in the visible regime. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138, 300–305 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Guo, Q. et al. Colossal in-plane optical anisotropy in a two-dimensional van der Waals crystal. Nat. Photon. 18, 1170–1175 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Abdelwahab, I. et al. Giant second-harmonic generation in ferroelectric NbOI2. Nat. Photon. 16, 644–650 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Guo, Q. et al. Ultrathin quantum light source with van der Waals NbOCl2 crystal. Nature 613, 53–59 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

HuangFu, C. et al. Out-of-plane ferroelectricity in two-dimensional 1T‴-MoS2 above room temperature. ACS Nano 18, 14708–14715 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Higashitarumizu, N. et al. Purely in-plane ferroelectricity in monolayer SnS at room temperature. Nat. Commun. 11, 2428 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhu, C.-Y. et al. Two-dimensional semiconducting SnP2Se6 with giant second-harmonic-generation for monolithic on-chip electronic-photonic integration. Nat. Commun. 14, 2521 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, L. et al. Emerging in-plane anisotropic two-dimensional materials. InfoMat 1, 54–73 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yang, H. et al. Optical waveplates based on birefringence of anisotropic two-dimensional layered materials. ACS Photonics 4, 3023–3030 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhou, Z. et al. Perpendicular optical reversal of the linear dichroism and polarized photodetection in 2D GeAs. ACS Nano 12, 12416–12423 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Yu, J. et al. Direct observation of the linear dichroism transition in two-dimensional palladium diselenide. Nano Lett. 20, 1172–1182 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Xiao, R.-C. et al. Classification of second harmonic generation effect in magnetically ordered materials. npj Quantum Mater. 8, 62 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kimel, A. V. et al. Observation of giant magnetic linear dichroism in GaMnAs. Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 227203 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, D., Ye, M., Chen, H., Xu, Y. & Duan, W. Giant and controllable nonlinear magneto-optical effects in two-dimensional magnets. npj Comput. Mater. 10, 79 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Němec, P., Fiebig, M., Kampfrath, T. & Kimel, A. V. Antiferromagnetic opto-spintronics. Nat. Phys. 14, 229–241 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Tokura, Y. & Nagaosa, N. Nonreciprocal responses from non-centrosymmetric quantum materials. Nat. Commun. 9, 3740 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Fiebig, M., Pavlov, V. V. & Pisarev, R. V. Second-harmonic generation as a tool for studying electronic and magnetic structures of crystals: review. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 22, 96–118 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kirilyuk, A. & Rasing, T. Magnetization-induced-second-harmonic generation from surfaces and interfaces. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 22, 148–167 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sun, Z. et al. Giant nonreciprocal second-harmonic generation from antiferromagnetic bilayer CrI3. Nature 572, 497–501 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ni, Z. et al. Imaging the Néel vector switching in the monolayer antiferromagnet MnPSe3 with strain-controlled Ising order. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 782–787 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, D., Xu, Y., Ye, M. & Duan, W. Spin-chirality-driven second-harmonic generation in two-dimensional magnet CrSBr. Sci. Adv. 11, eadu6562 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Song, Q. et al. Evidence for a single-layer van der Waals multiferroic. Nature 602, 601–605 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yamasaki, Y. et al. Electric control of spin helicity in a magnetic ferroelectric. Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 147204 (2007).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Song, S. et al. High current and carrier densities in 2D MoS2/AlScN field-effect transistors via ferroelectric gating and ohmic contacts. ACS Nano 19, 8985–8996 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Singh, S. et al. Nonvolatile control of valley polarized emission in 2D WSe2-AlScN heterostructures. ACS Nano 18, 17958–17968 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Nagaosa, N., Sinova, J., Onoda, S., MacDonald, A. H. & Ong, N. P. Anomalous Hall effect. Rev. Mod. Phys. 82, 1539–1592 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Li, Z. et al. Magnetic anisotropy control with Curie temperature above 400 K in a van der Waals ferromagnet for spintronic device. Adv. Mater. 34, 2201209 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, S. et al. Robust ferromagnetism in wafer-scale Fe3GaTe2 above room-temperature. Nat. Commun. 15, 10765 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhai, K. et al. Controlling exchange interaction and magnetic ordering in a van der Waals ferromagnet. Adv. Funct. Mater. 36, 2500793 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Šmejkal, L., MacDonald, A. H., Sinova, J., Nakatsuji, S. & Jungwirth, T. Anomalous Hall antiferromagnets. Nat. Rev. Mater. 7, 482–496 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Vasudevan, R. K., Balke, N., Maksymovych, P., Jesse, S. & Kalinin, S. V. Ferroelectric or non-ferroelectric: why so many materials exhibit ‘ferroelectricity’ on the nanoscale. Appl. Phys. Rev. 4, 021302 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

You, L. et al. Origin of giant negative piezoelectricity in a layered van der Waals ferroelectric. Sci. Adv. 5, eaav3780 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, Y., Zhang, D., Zhang, Y.-N., Deng, L. & Peng, B. Nonreciprocal and nonvolatile electric-field switching of magnetism in van der Waals heterostructure multiferroics. Nano Lett. 24, 5929–5936 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Niu, Y. et al. Robust electric-field control of colossal exchange bias in CrI3 homotrilayer. Adv. Mater. 36, 2403066 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Loh, K. P. All electrical switching of 2D multiferroic heterostructure. Sci. China Mater. 68, 1303–1304 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wu, Y. et al. Voltage-controlled topological spin textures in the monolayer limit. Nat. Commun. 17, 2923 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, Z. et al. Electric-field control of magnetism in a few-layered van der Waals ferromagnetic semiconductor. Nat. Nanotechnol, 13, 554–559 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Aoki, S. et al. Giant modulation of the second harmonic generation by magnetoelectricity in two-dimensional multiferroic CuCrP2S6. Adv. Mater. 36, 2312781 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Gao, F. Y. et al. Giant chiral magnetoelectric oscillations in a van der Waals multiferroic. Nature 632, 273–279 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Takahashi, Y., Shimano, R., Kaneko, Y., Murakawa, H. & Tokura, Y. Magnetoelectric resonance with electromagnons in a perovskite helimagnet. Nat. Phys. 8, 121–125 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bustamante Lopez, D. A. et al. Ultrafast simultaneous manipulation of multiple ferroic orders through non-linear phonon excitation. npj Quantum Mater. 10, 24 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Tzschaschel, C., Satoh, T. & Fiebig, M. Tracking the ultrafast motion of an antiferromagnetic order parameter. Nat. Commun. 10, 3995 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Masuda, R., Kaneko, Y., Tokura, Y. & Takahashi, Y. Electric field control of natural optical activity in a multiferroic helimagnet. Science 372, 496–500 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

von Baltz, R. & Kraut, W. Theory of the bulk photovoltaic effect in pure crystals. Phys. Rev. B 23, 5590–5596 (1981).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Moore, J. E. & Orenstein, J. Confinement-induced Berry phase and helicity-dependent photocurrents. Phys. Rev. Lett. 105, 026805 (2010).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Nastos, F. & Sipe, J. E. Optical rectification and shift currents in GaAs and GaP response: below and above the band gap. Phys. Rev. B 74, 035201 (2006).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ni, Z. et al. Giant topological longitudinal circular photo-galvanic effect in the chiral multifold semimetal CoSi. Nat. Commun. 12, 154 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Akamatsu, T. et al. A van der Waals interface that creates in-plane polarization and a spontaneous photovoltaic effect. Science 372, 68–72 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Feng, P. et al. High-efficiency bulk photovoltaic effect with ferroelectric-increased shift current. Nat. Commun. 16, 9839 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, C., Pi, H. & Zhou, J. Bulk photovoltaic effects in helimagnets. Phys. Rev. B 110, L041104 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ma, Q., Krishna Kumar, R., Xu, S.-Y., Koppens, F. H. L. & Song, J. C. W. Photocurrent as a multiphysics diagnostic of quantum materials. Nat. Rev. Phys. 5, 170–184 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Sipe, J. E. & Shkrebtii, A. I. Second-order optical response in semiconductors. Phys. Rev. B 61, 5337–5352 (2000).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ahn, J., Guo, G.-Y. & Nagaosa, N. Low-frequency divergence and quantum geometry of the bulk photovoltaic effect in topological semimetals. Phys. Rev. X 10, 041041 (2020).


Google Scholar
 

Li, D. et al. Intercorrelated ferroelectricity and bulk photovoltaic effect in two-dimensional Sn2P2S6 semiconductor for polarization-sensitive photodetection. ACS Nano 18, 9636–9644 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lee, D. et al. Polarity control of carrier injection at ferroelectric/metal interfaces for electrically switchable diode and photovoltaic effects. Phys. Rev. B 84, 125305 (2011).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Grinberg, I. et al. Perovskite oxides for visible-light-absorbing ferroelectric and photovoltaic materials. Nature 503, 509–512 (2013).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Mak, K. F., McGill, K. L., Park, J. & McEuen, P. L. The valley Hall effect in MoS2 transistors. Science 344, 1489–1492 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Lee, J., Mak, K. F. & Shan, J. Electrical control of the valley Hall effect in bilayer MoS2 transistors. Nat. Nanotechnol. 11, 421–425 (2016).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

McIver, J. W., Hsieh, D., Steinberg, H., Jarillo-Herrero, P. & Gedik, N. Control over topological insulator photocurrents with light polarization. Nat. Nanotechnol. 7, 96–100 (2012).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Osterhoudt, G. B. et al. Colossal mid-infrared bulk photovoltaic effect in a type-I Weyl semimetal. Nat. Mater. 18, 471–475 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Duan, S. et al. Berry curvature dipole generation and helicity-to-spin conversion at symmetry-mismatched heterointerfaces. Nat. Nanotechnol. 18, 867–874 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Song, Q. et al. Electrical switching of a p-wave magnet. Nature 642, 64–70 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, L. et al. Room-temperature electrically switchable spin–valley coupling in a van der Waals ferroelectric halide perovskite with persistent spin helix. Nat. Photon. 16, 529–537 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Schaibley, J. R. et al. Valleytronics in 2D materials. Nat. Rev. Mater. 1, 16055 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, Y. et al. Switchable magnetic bulk photovoltaic effect in the two-dimensional magnet CrI3. Nat. Commun. 10, 3783 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Watanabe, H. & Yanase, Y. Chiral photocurrent in parity-violating magnet and enhanced response in topological antiferromagnet. Phys. Rev. X 11, 011001 (2021).


Google Scholar
 

Wang, H. & Qian, X. Electrically and magnetically switchable non-linear photocurrent in РТ-symmetric magnetic topological quantum materials. npj Comput. Mater. 6, 199 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Holder, T., Kaplan, D. & Yan, B. Consequences of time-reversal-symmetry breaking in the light-matter interaction: Berry curvature, quantum metric, and diabatic motion. Phys. Rev. Res. 2, 033100 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Abdelwahab, I. et al. Two-dimensional chiral perovskites with large spin Hall angle and collinear spin Hall conductivity. Science 385, 311–317 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, Y. et al. Room-temperature long-range ferromagnetic order in a confined molecular monolayer. Nat. Phys. 20, 281–286 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, G. et al. Above-room-temperature strong intrinsic ferromagnetism in 2D van der Waals Fe3GaTe2 with large perpendicular magnetic anisotropy. Nat. Commun. 13, 5067 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Chang, K. et al. Enhanced spontaneous polarization in ultrathin SnTe films with layered antipolar structure. Adv. Mater. 31, 1804428 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Xiao, J. et al. Intrinsic two-dimensional ferroelectricity with dipole locking. Phys. Rev. Lett. 120, 227601 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zheng, C. et al. Room temperature in-plane ferroelectricity in van der Waals In2Se3. Sci. Adv. 4, eaar7720 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yuan, S. et al. Room-temperature ferroelectricity in MoTe2 down to the atomic monolayer limit. Nat. Commun. 10, 1775 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ghosh, T. et al. Ultrathin free-standing nanosheets of Bi2O2Se: room temperature ferroelectricity in self-assembled charged layered heterostructure. Nano Lett. 19, 5703–5709 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sharma, P. et al. A room-temperature ferroelectric semimetal. Sci. Adv. 5, eaax5080 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Belianinov, A. et al. CuInP2S6 room temperature layered ferroelectric. Nano Lett. 15, 3808–3814 (2015).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Song, L. et al. Robust multiferroic in interfacial modulation synthesized wafer-scale one-unit-cell of chromium sulfide. Nat. Commun. 15, 721 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Amini, M. et al. Atomic-scale visualization of multiferroicity in monolayer NiI2. Adv. Mater. 36, 2311342 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, X., Pyatakov, A. P. & Ren, W. Magnetoelectric coupling in multiferroic bilayer VS2. Phys. Rev. Lett. 125, 247601 (2020).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ren, Y., Ke, S., Lou, W.-K. & Chang, K. Quantum phase transitions driven by sliding in bilayer MnBi2Te4. Phys. Rev. B 106, 235302 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kong, X., Yoon, H., Han, M. J. & Liang, L. Switching interlayer magnetic order in bilayer CrI3 by stacking reversal. Nanoscale 13, 16172–16181 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhang, C., Guo, P. & Zhou, J. Tailoring bulk photovoltaic effects in magnetic sliding ferroelectric materials. Nano Lett. 22, 9297–9305 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Cao, T., Shao, D.-F., Huang, K., Gurung, G. & Tsymbal, E. Y. Switchable anomalous Hall effects in polar-stacked 2D antiferromagnet MnBi2Te4. Nano Lett. 23, 3781–3787 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Zhong, T., Cheng, L., Ren, Y. & Wu, M. Theoretical studies of sliding ferroelectricity, magnetoelectric couplings, and piezo-multiferroicity in two-dimensional magnetic materials. Chem. Phys. Lett. 818, 140430 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, Z. Fatigue-resistant sliding ferroelectricity. Sci. China Mater. 67, 3417–3418 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bhattacharyya, P. et al. Imaging the Meissner effect in hydride superconductors using quantum sensors. Nature 627, 73–79 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Casola, F., van der Sar, T. & Yacoby, A. Probing condensed matter physics with magnetometry based on nitrogen-vacancy centres in diamond. Nat. Rev. Mater. 3, 17088 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Dovzhenko, Y. et al. Magnetostatic twists in room-temperature skyrmions explored by nitrogen-vacancy center spin texture reconstruction. Nat. Commun. 9, 2712 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jiang, C. et al. Signatures of magnetism in zigzag graphene nanoribbons embedded in a hexagonal boron nitride lattice. Nat. Mater. 24, 1592–1599 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Maletinsky, P. et al. A robust scanning diamond sensor for nanoscale imaging with single nitrogen-vacancy centres. Nat. Nanotechnol. 7, 320–324 (2012).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, N. et al. Competing multiferroic phases in monolayer and few-layer NiI2. Phys. Rev. B 109, 195422 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Bai, Y. et al. Sub-nanosecond polarization switching with anomalous kinetics in vdW ferroelectric WTe2. Nat. Commun. 16, 7221 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hillenbrand, R., Abate, Y., Liu, M., Chen, X. & Basov, D. N. Visible-to-THz near-field nanoscopy. Nat. Rev. Mater. 10, 285–310 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hu, D. et al. Probing optical anisotropy of nanometer-thin van der Waals microcrystals by near-field imaging. Nat. Commun. 8, 1471 (2017).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Volckaert, K. et al. Momentum-resolved linear dichroism in bilayer MoS2. Phys. Rev. B 100, 241406 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Meng, P. et al. Sliding induced multiple polarization states in two-dimensional ferroelectrics. Nat. Commun. 13, 7696 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Xu, X. et al. Towards compact phase-matched and waveguided nonlinear optics in atomically layered semiconductors. Nat. Photon. 16, 698–706 (2022).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Leblanc, C., Song, S. & Jariwala, D. 2D ferroelectrics and ferroelectrics with 2D: materials and device prospects. Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 32, 101178 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Liu, C. et al. Ferroelectricity in niobium oxide dihalides NbOX2 (X = Cl, I): A macroscopic- to microscopic-scale study. ACS Nano 17, 7170–7179 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Ye, L. et al. Manipulation of nonlinear optical responses in layered ferroelectric niobium oxide dihalides. Nat. Commun. 14, 5911 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Jia, Y., Zhao, M., Gou, G., Zeng, X. C. & Li, J. Niobium oxide dihalides NbOX2: a new family of two-dimensional van der Waals layered materials with intrinsic ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity. Nanoscale Horiz. 4, 1113–1123 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Pan, X., Huang, J. & Huang, Y. Screening large birefringent materials via halogen regulation in ternary d0-transition metal oxyhalides. J. Phys. Chem. C 128, 1518–1526 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

El Mrabet Haje, H. et al. Anomalous refractive index modulation and giant birefringence in 2D ferrielectric CuInP2S6. Adv. Opt. Mater. 13, e02291 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bu, K. et al. Enhanced second-harmonic generation of van der Waals CuInP2S6 via pressure-regulated cationic displacement. Chem. Mater. 35, 242–250 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Dushaq, G., Serunjogi, S., Tamalampudi, S. R. & Rasras, M. Non-reciprocal response in silicon photonic resonators integrated with 2D CuCrP2S6 at short-wave infrared. Light Sci. Appl. 14, 157 (2025).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Wang, S. et al. Strong anisotropic two-dimensional In2Se3 for light intensity and polarization dual-mode high-performance detection. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15, 3357–3364 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Jeengar, C. et al. Investigation of layer-dependent electronic, optical and thermoelectric transport properties of α-In2Se3 based on first principles calculations. Physica B Condens. Matter 726, 418308 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Tang, Z. et al. Strain engineering the ferroelectric polarization and optical absorption in the FE β-In2Se3 monolayer. J. Phys. Chem. C. 126, 10181–10189 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Ju, H. et al. Possible persistence of multiferroic order down to bilayer limit of van der Waals material NiI2. Nano Lett. 21, 5126–5132 (2021).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Hemenger, R. P. Intraocular light scatter in normal vision loss with age. Appl. Opt. 23, 1972–1974 (1984).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Ghosh, G. Dispersion-equation coefficients for the refractive index and birefringence of calcite and quartz crystals. Opt. Commun. 163, 95–102 (1999).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Nikogosyan, D. N. Nonlinear Optical Crystals: A Complete Survey (Springer, 2005).

Volk, T. & Wöhlecke, M. Lithium Niobate: Defects, Photorefraction and Ferroelectric Switching (Springer, 2009).

Park, M. H. et al. Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity of doped thin HfO2-based films. Adv. Mater. 27, 1811–1831 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

El Boutaybi, A. et al. Electro-optic properties of ZrO2, HfO2, and LiNbO3 ferroelectric phases: a comparative density functional study. Phys. Rev. B 107, 045140 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Qin, J. et al. Enhanced second harmonic generation from ferroelectric HfO2-based hybrid metasurfaces. ACS Nano 13, 1213–1222 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, K.-H. et al. Tuning polarity in WSe2/AlScN FeFETs via contact engineering. ACS Nano 18, 4180–4188 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, K.-H., Karpov, I., Olsson, R. H. & Jariwala, D. Wurtzite and fluorite ferroelectric materials for electronic memory. Nat. Nanotechnol. 18, 422–441 (2023).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Yoshioka, V. et al. CMOS-compatible, AlScN-based integrated electro-optic phase shifter. Nanophotonics 13, 3327–3335 (2024).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Baeumler, M. et al. Optical constants and band gap of wurtzite Al1−xScxN/Al2O3 prepared by magnetron sputter epitaxy for scandium concentrations up to x = 0.41. J. Appl. Phys. 126, 045715 (2019).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Sando, D. et al. Linear electro-optic effect in multiferroic BiFeO3 thin films. Phys. Rev. B 89, 195106 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, Z. et al. Complex strain evolution of polar and magnetic order in multiferroic BiFeO3 thin films. Nat. Commun. 9, 3764 (2018).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Aoyama, T. et al. Giant spin-driven ferroelectric polarization in TbMnO3 under high pressure. Nat. Commun. 5, 4927 (2014).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Kimura, T., Lawes, G., Goto, T., Tokura, Y. & Ramirez, A. P. Magnetoelectric phase diagrams of orthorhombic RMnO3 (R = Gd, Tb, and Dy). Phys. Rev. B 71, 224425 (2005).

Article 
ADS 

Google Scholar
 

Trepakov, V. A. et al. Electronic structure, optical and dielectric spectroscopy study of TbMnO3. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/1604.02428 (2016).

Wu, Y. & Peng, B. Magneto-optical-electric joint-measurement scanning imaging system for identification of two-dimensional vdW multiferroic. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.05363 (2026).