Smith, S. M. et al. The State of Carbon Dioxide Removal 2nd edn (Univ. Oxford, 2024).
Schweizer, V. J. et al. Integrated climate-change assessment scenarios and carbon dioxide removal. One Earth 3, 166–172 (2020).
Minx, J. C. et al. Negative emissions—part 1: Research landscape and synthesis. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 063001 (2018).
Schenuit, F. et al. Secure robust carbon dioxide removal policy through credible certification. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, 349 (2023).
Allen, M. R. et al. Net zero: science, origins, and implications. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 47, 849–887 (2022).
Brunner, C., Hausfather, Z. & Knutti, R. Durability of carbon dioxide removal is critical for Paris climate goals. Commun. Earth Environ. 5, 645 (2024).
Matthews, H. D., Zickfeld, K., Koch, A. & Luers, A. Accounting for the climate benefit of temporary carbon storage in nature. Nat. Commun. 14, 5485 (2023).
Gren, M. & Aklilu, A. Z. Policy design for forest carbon sequestration: a review of the literature. For. Policy Econ. 70, 128–136 (2016).
Marland, G., Fruit, K. & Sedjo, R. Accounting for sequestered carbon: the question of permanence. Environ. Sci. Policy 4, 259–268 (2001).
Herzog, H., Caldeira, K. & Reilly, J. An issue of permanence: assessing the effectiveness of temporary carbon storage. Clim. Change 59, 293–310 (2003).
Levasseur, A. et al. Valuing temporary carbon storage. Nat. Clim. Change 2, 6–8 (2012).
Leifeld, J. Carbon farming: climate change mitigation via non-permanent carbon sinks. J. Environ. Manage. 339, 117893 (2023).
Anderegg, W. R. L. et al. Climate-driven risks to the climate mitigation potential of forests. Science 368, eaaz7005 (2020).
Parisa, Z., Marland, E., Sohngen, B., Marland, G. & Jenkins, J. The time value of carbon storage. For. Policy Econ. 144, 102840 (2022).
Fearnside, P. M., Lashof, D. A. & Moura-Costa, P. Accounting for time in mitigating global warming through land-use change and forestry. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 5, 239–270 (2000).
Moura Costa, P. & Wilson, C. An equivalence factor between CO2 avoided emissions and sequestration – description and applications in forestry. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 5, 51–60 (2000).
Korhonen, R., Pingoud, K., Savolainen, I. & Matthews, R. The role of carbon sequestration and the tonne-year approach in fulfilling the objective of climate convention. Environ. Sci. Policy 5, 429–441 (2002).
Groom, B. & Venmans, F. The social value of offsets. Nature 619, 768–773 (2023).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). Information note: Removal activities under the Article 6.4 mechanism. 3rd Meeting of the Article 6.4 Supervisory Body (2023).
Allen, M. R. et al. Indicate separate contributions of long-lived and short-lived greenhouse gases in emission targets. npj Clim. Atmos. Sci. 5, 5 (2022).
Gasser, T. et al. Accounting for the climate-carbon feedback in emission metric. Earth Syst. Dyn. 8, 235–253 (2017).
Peters, G. P., Aamaas, B., Berntsen, T. & Fuglestvedt, J. S. The integrated global temperature change potential (iGTP) and relationships between emission metrics. Environ. Res. Lett. 6, 044021 (2011).
Forster, P. et al. in Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Masson-Delmotte, V. et al.) Ch. 7 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2021).
Collins, W. J., Frame, D. J., Fuglestvedt, J. S. & Shine, K. P. Stable climate metrics for emissions of short and long-lived species-combining steps and pulses. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 24018 (2020).
Gillett, N. P. & Matthews, H. D. Accounting for carbon cycle feedbacks in a comparison of the global warming effects of greenhouse gases. Environ. Res. Lett. 5, 034011 (2010).
Heryanto, H. et al. Structural-optical transformation of milkfish scales (Chanos chanos) into chitin and its properties as bioplastics before and after degradation. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 50, 3841–3854 (2025).
Sanei, H. et al. Assessing biochar’s permanence: an inertinite benchmark. Int. J. Coal Geol. 281, 104409 (2024).
Geyer, R., Jambeck, J. R. & Law, K. L. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv. 3, 25–29 (2017).
Skog, K. E. Sequestration of carbon in harvested wood products for the United States. For. Prod. J. 58, 56–72 (2008).
Shine, K. P. The global warming potential–the need for an interdisciplinary retrial. Clim. Change 96, 467–472 (2009).
Fearnside, P. M. Why a 100-year time horizon should be used for globalwarming mitigation calculations. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 7, 19–30 (2002).
Chiquier, S., Patrizio, P., Bui, M., Sunny, N. & Mac Dowell, N. A comparative analysis of the efficiency, timing, and permanence of CO2 removal pathways. Energy Environ. Sci. 15, 4389–4403 (2022).
Riahi, K. et al. Cost and attainability of meeting stringent climate targets without overshoot. Nat. Clim. Change 11, 1063–1069 (2021).
Joppa, L. et al. Microsoft’s million-tonne CO2-removal purchase — lessons for net zero. Nature 597, 629–632 (2021).
So, I., Haya, B. & Elias, M. Voluntary Registry Offsets Database. Berkeley Carbon Trading Project, University of California, Berkeley https://gspp.berkeley.edu/berkeley-carbon-trading-project/offsets-database (2023).
Brander, M. & Broekhoff, D. Methods that equate temporary carbon storage with permanent CO2 emission reductions lead to false claims on temperature alignment. Carbon Manag. 14, 2284714 (2023).
Fuglestvedt, J. S. et al. Metrics of climate change: assessing radiative forcing and emission indices. Clim. Change 58, 267–331 (2003).
Smith, M. A., Cain, M. & Allen, M. R. Further improvement of warming-equivalent emissions calculation. npj Clim. Atmos. Sci. 4, 19 (2021).
Shine, K. P., Berntsen, T. K., Fuglestvedt, J. S., Skeie, R. B. & Stuber, N. Comparing the climate effect of emissions of short- and long-lived climate agents. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 365, 1903–1914 (2007).
Smith, S. M. et al. Equivalence of greenhouse-gas emissions for peak temperature limits. Nat. Clim. Change 2, 535–538 (2012).
Ocko, I. B. et al. Unmask temporal trade-offs in climate policy debates. Science 356, 492–493 (2017).
Allen, M. R. et al. Geological Net Zero and the need for disaggregated accounting for carbon sinks. Nature 638, 343–350 (2025).
Shindell, D. et al. Simultaneously mitigating near-term climate change and improving human health and food security. Science 335, 183–189 (2012).
Takemura, T. Return to different climate states by reducing sulphate aerosols under future CO2 concentrations. Sci. Rep. 10, 21748 (2020).
Franks, M., Gruner, F., Kalkuhl, M., Lessmann, K. & Edenhofer, O. Pigou’s advice and Sisyphus’ warning: carbon pricing with non-permanent carbon dioxide removal. Environ. Resour. Econ. 89, 11 (2026).
Lynch, J., Cain, M., Pierrehumbert, R. & Allen, M. Demonstrating GWP*: a means of reporting warming-equivalent emissions that captures the contrasting impacts of short- and long-lived climate pollutants. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 044023 (2020).
Cullenward, D. A framework for assessing the climate value of temporary carbon storage. Carbon Market Watch https://carbonmarketwatch.org/publications/a-framework-for-assessing-the-climate-value-of-temporary-carbon-storage/ (2023).
Prado, A. & Mac Dowell, N. The cost of permanent carbon dioxide removal. Joule 7, 700–712 (2023).
Venmans, F., Rickels, W. & Groom, B. Temporary carbon dioxide removals to offset methane emissions. Nat. Clim. Change 16, 37–42 (2026).
Hepburn, C. et al. The technological and economic prospects for CO2 utilization and removal. Nature 575, 87–97 (2019).
Mac Dowell, N., Reiner, D. M. & Haszeldine, R. S. Comparing approaches for carbon dioxide removal. Joule 6, 2233–2239 (2022).
Fuglestvedt, J. S. et al. Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: metrics. Atmos. Environ. 44, 4648–4677 (2010).
Kirschbaum, M. U. F. Can trees buy time? An assessment of the role of vegetation sinks as part of the global carbon cycle. Clim. Change 58, 47–71 (2003).
Pingoud, K. & Wagner, F. Methane emissions from landfills and carbon dynamics of harvested wood products: the first-order decay revisited. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 11, 961–978 (2006).
Zickfeld, K., Azevedo, D., Mathesius, S. & Matthews, H. D. Asymmetry in the climate–carbon cycle response to positive and negative CO2 emissions. Nat. Clim. Change 11, 613–617 (2021).