Brauer, M. et al. Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet. 403, 2162–2203 (2024).
Placzek, O. Socio-economic and demographic aspects of food security and nutrition. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers, No. 150 (OECD Publishing, 2021); https://doi.org/10.1787/49d7059f-en
Darmon, N. & Drewnowski, A. Does social class predict diet quality?. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87, 1107–1117 (2008).
Irala-Estévez, J. D. et al. A systematic review of socio-economic differences in food habits in Europe: consumption of fruit and vegetables. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54, 706–714 (2000).
Pollard, C. M. & Booth, S. Food insecurity and hunger in rich countries—it is time for action against inequality. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16, 1804 (2019).
Food Security in the US Key Statistics & Graphics (US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, accessed 1 May 2024); https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-u-s/key-statistics-graphics
Definitions of Food Security (US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, accessed 29 April 2018); https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-us/definitions-of-food-security
Weinreb, L. et al. Hunger: its impact on children’s health and mental health. Pediatrics. 110, e41 (2002).
Laraia, B. A., Leak, T. M., Tester, J. M. & Leung, C. W. Biobehavioral factors that shape nutrition in low-income populations: a narrative review. Am. J. Prev. Med. 52, S118–S126 (2017).
Althoff, T., Nilforoshan, H., Hua, J. & Leskovec, J. Large-scale diet tracking data reveal disparate associations between food environment and diet. Nat. Commun. 13, 267 (2022).
Akresh, I. R. Dietary assimilation and health among Hispanic immigrants to the United States. J. Health Soc. Behav. 48, 404–417 (2007).
Gregory, C., Ver Ploeg, M., Andrews, M. & Coleman-Jensen, A. (eds) Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Participation Leads to Modest Changes in Diet Quality, Economic Research Report No. 147 https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.262225 (US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, 2013).
Hastings, J., Kessler, R. & Shapiro, J. M. The effect of SNAP on the composition of purchased foods: evidence and implications. Am. Econ. J. Econ. Policy. 13, 277–315 (2021).
Pega, F. et al. Unconditional cash transfers for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities: effect on use of health services and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011135.pub3 (2022).
Seidenfeld, D., et al. The Impact of an Unconditional Cash Transfer on Food Security and Nutrition: The Zambia Child Grant Programme (Institute of Development Studies, 2014; accessed 16 May 2022); https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/4385
Kenya CT-OVC Evaluation Team. The impact of the Kenya Cash Transfer Program for Orphans and Vulnerable Children on household spending. J. Dev. Effective. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2011.653980 (2012).
Beck, S., Pulkki-Brännström, A. M. & San Sebastián, M. Basic income—healthy outcome? Effects on health of an Indian basic income pilot project: a cluster randomised trial. J. Dev. Effective. 7, 111–126 (2015).
Martins, A. P. B., Canella, D. S., Baraldi, L. G. & Monteiro, C. A. Cash transfer in Brazil and nutritional outcomes: a systematic review. Rev Saude Pub. 47, 1159–1171 (2013).
Bliss, J., Golden, K., Bourahla, L., Stoltzfus, R. & Pelletier, D. An emergency cash transfer program promotes weight gain and reduces acute malnutrition risk among children 6–24 months old during a food crisis in Niger. J. Glob. Health https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.08.010410 (2018).
Chrisinger, B. W. Keeping SNAP in line with global evidence on food security. N. Engl. J. Med. 391, 873–875 (2024).
Naranbhai, V. et al. High seroprevalence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in Chelsea, Massachusetts. J. Infect. Dis. 222, 1955–1959 (2020).
Restrepo, B. J., Rabbitt, M. P. & Gregory, C. A. The effect of unemployment on food spending and adequacy: evidence from coronavirus-induced firm closures. Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13143 (2021).
Drewnowski, A. The cost of US foods as related to their nutritive value. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 92, 1181–1188 (2010).
Kerwin, J., Rostom, N. & Sterck O. Striking the Right Balance: Why Standard Balance Tests Over-Reject the Null, and How to Fix It. IZA Institute of Labor Economics, 2024; accessed 30 July 2025); https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/17217/striking-the-right-balance-why-standard-balance-tests-over-reject-the-null-and-how-to-fix-it
Griffith, R. Obesity, poverty and public policy. Econ. J. 132, 1235–1258 (2022).
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020–2025 (US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Health and Human Services, 2020).
Developing the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) (National Cancer Institute Division of Cancer Control & Population Sciences, 1 August 2023; accessed 8 September 2023); https://epi.grants.cancer.gov/hei/developing.html
Lee, S. H. Adults Meeting Fruit and Vegetable Intake Recommendations—United States, 2019. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly Rep. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7101a1 (2022).
Iqbal, R. et al. Associations of unprocessed and processed meat intake with mortality and cardiovascular disease in 21 countries [Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) Study]: a prospective cohort study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 114, 1049–1058 (2021).
Farvid, M. S. et al. Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Epidemiol. 36, 937–951 (2021).
Todd, J. E., Mancino, L. & Lin, B H. The Impact of Food Away From Home on Adult Diet Quality (US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, 2010; aaccessed 28 July 2025); https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details?pubid=46354
Mancino, L., Todd, J. E., Guthrie, J. & Lin, B. H. How Food Away From Home Affects Children’s Diet Quality (US Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, 2010; accessed 28 July 2025); https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details?pubid=44756
Liebman, J., Carlson, K., Novick, E. & Portocarrero, P. The Chelsea Eats Program: Experimental Impacts (Harvard Kennedy School Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston, 2024); https://www.hks.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Taubman/RIGB/Chelsea%20Eats%20Experimental%20Impacts%20120622.pdf
Olsho, L. E., Klerman, J. A., Wilde, P. E. & Bartlett, S. Financial incentives increase fruit and vegetable intake among Supplementaryal Nutrition Assistance Program participants: a randomized controlled trial of the USDA Healthy Incentives Pilot. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 104, 423–435 (2016).
Griffith, R., von Hinke, S. & Smith, S. Getting a healthy start: the effectiveness of targeted benefits for improving dietary choices. J. Health Econ. 58, 176–187 (2018).
Briefel, R. R. et al. Nutrition impacts in a randomized trial of summer food benefits to prevent childhood hunger in US schoolchildren. J. Hunger Environ. Nutr. 13, 304–321 (2018).
Agarwal, S. D., Cook, B. L. & Liebman, J. B. Effect of cash benefits on health care utilization and health: a randomized study. JAMA https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2024.13004 (2024).
Belarmino, E. H., Zack, R. M., Clay, L. A. & Birk, N. W. Diaper need during the COVID-19 pandemic associated with poverty, food insecurity, and chronic illness: an analysis of a representative state sample of caretakers with young children. Health Equity 6, 150–158 (2022).
Thompson, F. E. & Subar, A, F. in Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease 5–48 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802928-2.00001-1 (Elsevier, 2017).
Shim, J. S., Oh, K. & Kim, H. C. Dietary assessment methods in epidemiologic studies. Epidemiol. Health. 36, e2014009 (2014).
Karvetti, R. L. & Knuts, L. R. Validity of the 24-hour dietary recall. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 85, 1437–1442 (1985).
Sperber, J. F. et al. Unconditional cash transfers and maternal assessments of children’s health, nutrition, and sleep: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 6, e2335237 (2023).
Subar, A. F. et al. Addressing current criticism regarding the value of self-report dietary data. J. Nutr. 145, 2639–2645 (2015).
Bartik, A. W. et al. The impact of unconditional cash transfers on consumption and household balance sheets: experimental evidence from two US states. Preprint National Bureau of Economic Research https://doi.org/10.3386/w32784 (2024).
Miller, S. et al. Does income affect health? Evidence from a randomized controlled trial of a guaranteed income. Preprint National Bureau of Economic Research https://doi.org/10.3386/w32711 (2024).
Schild, J. et al. Effects of the expanded child tax credit on household spending: estimates based on US Consumer Expenditure Survey data. Preprint National Bureau of Economic Research https://doi.org/10.3386/w31412 (2023).
ASA24 Dietary Assessment Tool (National Cancer Institute Division of Cancer Control & Population Sciences, 2020; accessed 24 May 2022); https://epi.grants.cancer.gov/asa24/
Kirkpatrick, S. I. et al. Performance of the automated self-administered 24-hour recall relative to a measure of true intakes and to an interviewer-administered 24-h recall. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 100, 233–240 (2014).
Darmon, N. & Drewnowski, A. Contribution of food prices and diet cost to socioeconomic disparities in diet quality and health: a systematic review and analysis. Nutr. Rev. 73, 643–660 (2015).
Austin, P. C. & Stuart, E. A. Moving towards best practice when using inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) using the propensity score to estimate causal treatment effects in observational studies. Stat. Med. 34, 3661–3679 (2015).
Blumberg, S. J., Bialostosky, K., Hamilton, W. L. & Briefel, R. R. The effectiveness of a short form of the Household Food Security Scale. Am. J. Public Health 89, 1231–1234 (1999).
Lee, M. Analytic code for ‘Randomized unconditional cash transfers improved diet in a lower-income community from Chelsea, Massachusetts, US.’ Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17834151 (2025).