Abouelmehdi, K., Beni-Hssane, A., Khaloufi, H. & Saadi, M. Big data security and privacy in healthcare: a review. Procedia Comput. Sci. 113, 73–80 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Martin, K. D. & Murphy, P. E. The role of data privacy in marketing. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 45, 135–155 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Sun, Y., Zhang, J., Xiong, Y. & Zhu, G. Data security and privacy in cloud computing. Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw. 10, 190903 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Turan, M. S., Barker, E., Burr, W. & Chen, L. Recommendation for Password-Based Key Derivation. NIST Special Publication No. 800-132 (NIST, 2010).

Herder, C., Yu, M.-D., Koushanfar, F. & Devadas, S. Physical unclonable functions and applications: a tutorial. Proc. IEEE 102, 1126–1141 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Gao, Y., Al-Sarawi, S. F. & Abbott, D. Physical unclonable functions. Nat. Electron. 3, 81–91 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Kim, M. S. et al. Revisiting silk: a lens-free optical physical unclonable function. Nat. Commun. 13, 247 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Security and Authentication. NXP http://www.nxp.com/products/security-and-authentication:SECURITY-AND-AUTHENTICATION (accessed 30 April 2026).

Physical Unclonable Function (PUF). Synopsys http://www.synopsys.com/designware-ip/security-ip/cryptography-ip/puf.html (accessed 30 April 2026).

Bahar Talukder, B. M. S., Ferdaus, F. & Rahman, M. T. Memory-based PUFs are vulnerable as well: a non-invasive attack against SRAM PUFs. IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur. 16, 4035–4049 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Shanta, A. S., Majumder, Md. B., Hasan, Md. S. & Rose, G. S. Physically Unclonable and Reconfigurable Computing System (PURCS) for hardware security applications. IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided Des. Integr. Circuits Syst. 40, 405–418 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Grubel, B. C. et al. Silicon photonic physical unclonable function. Opt. Express 25, 12710–12721 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bosworth, B. T. et al. Unclonable photonic keys hardened against machine learning attacks. APL Photonics 5, 010803 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Boccaletti, S., Kurths, J., Osipov, G., Valladares, D. L. & Zhou, C. S. The synchronization of chaotic systems. Phys. Rep. 366, 1–101 (2002).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lu, H., Alkhazragi, O., Wang, Y., Ng, T. K. & Ooi, B. S. Parallel on-chip physical random number generator based on self-chaotic dynamics of free-running broad-area VCSEL array. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 31, 1–11 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Adachihara, H., Hess, O., Abraham, E., Ru, P. & Moloney, J. V. Spatiotemporal chaos in broad-area semiconductor lasers. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 10, 658–665 (1993).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bittner, S. et al. Suppressing spatiotemporal lasing instabilities with wave-chaotic microcavities. Science 361, 1225–1231 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhou, Z. et al. Prospects and applications of on-chip lasers. eLight 3, 1 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Nandhakumar, N. et al. Deep learning-enhanced dynamic photonic security system using multimode VCSELs. In Proc. CLEO 2025 Technical Digest Series paper SS126_3 (Optica Publishing Group, 2025).

Lu, H. et al. Low-coherence semiconductor light sources: devices and applications. npj Nanophotonics 1, 9 (2024).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Information technology — Automatic identification and data capture techniques — QR code bar code symbology specification ISO/IEC 18004:2024 (ISO, 2024); http://www.iso.org/standard/83389.html

Ran, X. & Li, D. QR code digital watermarking algorithm based on two-dimensional logistic chaotic map. In Proc. Advances in 3D Image and Graphics Representation, Analysis, Computing and Information Technology (eds Kountchev, R. et al.) 349–357 (Springer, 2020).

Kinsner, W. Characterizing chaos through Lyapunov metrics. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part C 36, 141–151 (2006).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Sönmez Turan, M. et al. Recommendation for the Entropy Sources Used for Random Bit Generation, No. NIST SP 800-90B (NIST, 2018); https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/90/b/final

Alkhazragi, O. et al. Semiconductor emitters in entropy sources for quantum random number generation. Ann. Phys. 535, 2300289 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lin, H. et al. Micro-LED-based quantum random number generators. Opt. Express 33, 22154–22164 (2025).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Alkhazragi, O. et al. Modifying the coherence of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers using chaotic cavities. Optica 10, 191–199 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Ou, X. et al. Mode control and dynamic population gratings in quantum-dot lasers. Optica 13, 469–475 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lu, H., Alkhazragi, O., Ng, T. K. & Ooi, B. S. Impact of cavity geometry on chaotic emission and entropy source efficiency in VCSELs. In 2024 IEEE Photonics Conference (IPC) https://doi.org/10.1109/IPC60965.2024.10799714 (IEEE, 2024).

Lu, H., Alkhazragi, O., Lin, H., Ng, T. K. & Ooi, B. S. Impact of cavity geometry on power, spectra, and coherence characteristics of VCSELs. In 2025 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) 1–2 (IEEE, 2025).

Cao, H. & Wiersig, J. Dielectric microcavities: model systems for wave chaos and non-Hermitian physics. Rev. Mod. Phys. 87, 61–111 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Sun, N. et al. Random fractal-enabled physical unclonable functions with dynamic AI authentication. Nat. Commun. 14, 2185 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Guembe, B. et al. The emerging threat of AI-driven cyber attacks: a review. Appl. Artif. Intell. 36, 2037254 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Chen, T. et al. Adversarial attack and defense in reinforcement learning—from AI security view. Cybersecurity 2, 11 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Qiu, S., Liu, Q., Zhou, S. & Wu, C. Review of artificial intelligence adversarial attack and defense technologies. Appl. Sci. 9, 909 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Duan, X., Liu, J. & Zhang, E. Efficient image encryption and compression based on a VAE generative model. J. Real-Time Image Process. 16, 765–773 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Zhao, C. et al. Generative AI for secure physical layer communications: a survey. IEEE Trans. Cogn. Commun. Netw. 11, 3–26 (2025).

Chakraborty, A., Alam, M., Dey, V., Chattopadhyay, A. & Mukhopadhyay, D. A survey on adversarial attacks and defences. CAAI Trans. Intell. Technol. 6, 25–45 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

McInnes, L., Healy, J., Saul, N. & Großberger, L. UMAP: Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection. J. Open Source Softw. 3, 861 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Mahajan, R. et al. Co-packaged photonics for high performance computing: status, challenges and opportunities. J. Lightwave Technol. 40, 379–392 (2022).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wan, Y. et al. Integrating silicon photonics with complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor technologies. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. 3, 15–31 (2026).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Papatryfonos, K. et al. Co-package technology platform for low-power and low-cost data centers. Appl. Sci. 11, 6098 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cheng, H.-T., Pan, J.-S., Lin, W.-H., Yang, Y.-C. & Wu, C.-H. Zone-addressable 20 × 20 940 nm VCSEL array with a 5-bit binary number pattern. Opt. Lett. 48, 3937–3940 (2023).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Lu, H., Alkhazragi, O., Lin, H., Ng, T. K. & Ooi, B. S. On-chip tamper-resistant quantum entropy source enabled by monolithic emitter–detector integration. In Proc. 2025 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 1–4 (IEEE, 2025).

Graham, L. A. et al. The next generation of high speed VCSELs at Finisar. In Proc. Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers XVI (eds Lei, C. & Choquette, K. D.) 13–22 (SPIE, 2012).

Michalzik, R. in VCSELs: Fundamentals, Technology and Applications of Vertical-cavity Surface-emitting Lasers (ed Michalzik, R.) 19–75 (Springer, 2013).

Chen, Z., Li, Z., Xu, B., Zhang, Y. & Guo, H. The m-least significant bits operation for quantum random number generation. J. Phys. B 52, 195501 (2019).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hart, J. D. et al. Recommendations and illustrations for the evaluation of photonic random number generators. APL Photonics 2, 090901 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rukhin, A. et al. A Statistical Test Suite for Random and Pseudorandom Number Generators for Cryptographic Applications No. NIST SP 800-22 Rev. 1 (NIST, 2010); https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/22/r1/upd1/final

Lu, H. et al. Optical authentication leveraging chaotic-cavity VCSEL far-field patterns with deep learning. In Proc. 2025 IEEE Photonics Conference (IPC) 1–2 (IEEE, 2025).

Zhou, Z. et al. Physical unclonable functions based on chaotic vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers for dynamic authentication. figshare https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.29432498 (2026).