Updated trends in the global prevalence and burden of mental disorders, 1990-2023: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2023

Declaration of interests Q E S Adnani reports grants or contracts as a recipient of the study under the EQUITY WCU program at Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, Indonesia, which is funded by the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) on behalf of the Indonesian Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology and managed under the EQUITY Program (contract number 4303/ B3/DT.03.08/2025 and 3927/UN6.RKT/HK.07.00/2025); outside the submitted work. C Agostinis Sobrinho reports grants or contracts from Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) via grant CEECINST/00093/2021/CP2815/CT0001; outside the submitted work. A Ahmed reports support for the present manuscript from salary support from R01MH126768. M S Aslam reports grants or contracts from Xiamen University Malaysia Research Fund (XMUMRF) grant number XMUMRF/2025-C15/ITCM/0006, grant number XMUMRF/2023-C11/ISEM/0041, grant number XMUMRF/2026-C17/ITCM/0007; outside the submitted work. O C Baltatu reports support for the present manuscript from the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development Fellowship (CNPq, 304224/2022-7), Anima Institute (AI), Alfaisal University; leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, paid or unpaid from VividiWise Analytics as Managing Partner and from São José dos Campos Tech Park—CITE as Biotech Advisory Board Member. M Beghi reports payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from LUNDBECK and ANGELINI; outside the submitted work. S Bhaskar reports grants or contracts from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) (grant ID: 23KF0126), JSPS and the Australian Academy of Science, JSPS International Fellowship (grant ID: P23712); leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, paid or unpaid as District Chair, Diversity, Equity, Inclusion & Belonging of Rotary District 9675 (Sydney, Australia), as Chair, Founding Member and Manager of the Global Health & Migration Hub Community, Global Health Hub Germany (Berlin, Germany), as Editorial Board Member of PLoS One, BMC Neurology, Frontiers in Neurology, Frontiers in Stroke, Frontiers in Public Health, Journal of Aging Research, Neurology International, Diagnostics, & BMC Medical Research Methodology, as a member of the College of Reviewers, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), Government of Canada, as the Director of Research of World Headache Society (Bengaluru, India), as Expert Adviser/Reviewer of Cariplo Foundation (Milan, Italy), as Visiting Director of National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Department of Neurology, Division of Cerebrovascular Medicine and Neurology, Suita (Osaka, Japan), as Member, Scientific Review Committee of Cardiff University Biobank (Cardiff, UK), as Chair of Rotary Reconciliation Action Plan, and Healthcare and Medical Adviser at Japan Connect (Osaka, Japan); outside the submitted work. M Carvalho reports other support from LAQV/REQUIMTE, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal under the scope of the project UIDP/50006/2020 (DOI 10.54499/UIDP/50006/2020); outside the submitted work. R Cairns reports grants or contracts from Reckitt; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events The Pharmacy Guild of Australia and Reckitt; outside the submitted work. S R Clark reports grants or contracts from Janssen Cilag Australia investigator-initiated research grants, Australian NHMRC, MMRF research grants, NIMH research grants, XW pharma contract research; consulting fees from Insight timer and Preventative Health SA; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Servier, Lundbeck-Otsuka; leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, unpaid from Board of Mental Health Foundation of Australia; outside the submitted work. D Dias da Silva reports grants or contracts from FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (Project 2024.06933.RESTART) and E2S|P.Porto—Escola Superior de Saúde do Politécnico do Porto; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from FFUP—Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto (Portugal) and FMUP—Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Porto (Portugal); support for attending meetings and/or travel E2S|P.Porto—Escola Superior de Saúde do Politécnico do Porto, Portugal and Research Unit LAQV-REQUIMTE, Portugal; outside the submitted work. A Faro reports support for the present manuscript from the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, Brazil). A Ferrari reports consulting fees from The University of Queensland; outside the submitted work. Q Gan reports financial or non-financial interests from the International Agency for Research on Cancer/World Health Organization, the authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this article and they do not necessarily represent the decisions, policy, or views of the International Agency for Research on Cancer/World Health Organization, outside the submitted work. I Ilic reports support for the present manuscript from the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia (number 451-03-137/2025-03/200110). N E Ismail reports leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, unpaid as The Bursar and Council Member of Malaysian Academy of Pharmacy (Malaysia), as Committee Member of Malaysian Pharmacists Society Education Chapter Committee, and as the Deputy President of Information Technology Service Management Forum (itSMF) Malaysia Chapter; outside the submitted work. J Jozwiak reports payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Novartis, Adamed, Amgen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Servier, Novo Nordisc; outside the submitted work. J Khubchandani reports grants or contracts from Merck Pharmaceuticals, National Science Foundation, NM-INBRE/NIGMS-NIH (P20GM103451); payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from North American Transplant Coordinators Organization and Elsevier; outside the submitted work. C Kieling reports grants or contracts from Academy of Medical Sciences (UK) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (Brazil); consulting fees from Wellcome Trust and Child Mind Institute; other financial or non-financial interests Wida (digital mental health platform); outside the submitted work. M Kivimaki reports grants or contracts from Wellcome Trust (221854/Z/20/Z), UK Medical Research Council (MR/Y014154/1), Research Council of Finland (350426); outside the submitted work. K Krishan reports other financial or non-financial interests from the UGC Centre of Advanced Study, CAS II, awarded to the Department of Anthropology, and RUSA 2.O grant awarded by the Ministry of Education to Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, outside the submitted work. T Lallukka reports support for the present manuscript from the Research Council of Finland (330527]. H Liu reports other financial or non-financial interests from the National Medical Research Association (NMRA, UK), a member of British Society for Cardiovascular Research (BSCR, UK), and a member of Cardiovascular Analytics Group (CVAG, HKSAR of China); and role as Visiting Professor of Universidad Santa Paula, Costa Rica; outside the submitted work. R T Liu grants or contracts from the National Institute of Mental Health grant numbers R01 MH115905, R01 MH124899, R01 MH137793, K24 MH136418, R21 MH130767; consulting fees from Relmada Therapeutics; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Miami International Child and Adolescent Mental Health Conference, Massachusetts General Hospital, International Academy for Suicide Research, and the University of Virginia; participation on a Data Safety Monitoring Board or Advisory Board from Data Safety Monitoring Board for University of Pennsylvania, University of Minnesota, Massachusetts General Hospital; leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, paid or unpaid from Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies and American Psychological Association; outside the submitted work. V Lohner reports support for the present manuscript from Marga and Walter Boll Foundation, Kerpen, Germany. H R Marateb reports grants or contracts from Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Barcelona Tech – UPC; outside the submitted work. R J Maude reports support from the present manuscript from Wellcome Trust (grant number 220211; provides core funding for Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research and contributes to salary). S A Meo reports grants or contracts from the Ongoing Research Funding Program (ORF-2025-47), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. T R Miller reports grants or contracts from National Institute on Mental Health, National Institutes of Health (NIH) and AB InBev Foundation; payment for expert testimony from Baron-Budd (government opioid litigation); outside the submitted work. L Monasta reports support for the present manuscript from the Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Corrente 34/2017), payments made to the Institute for Maternal and Child Health IRCCS Burlo Garofolo. R Moreira reports grants or contracts from CNPq Research Productivity Scholarship (registration number 308986/2025-3). C Niedzwiedz reports grants or contracts from Medical Research Foundation, Centre of Expertise for Waters, Economic and Social Research Council; consulting fees from the Centre for Strategy & Evaluation Services (CSES) and European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA); outside the submitted work. S Nomura reports support for the present manuscript from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (24H00663). A O’Neil reports support for the present manuscript from the National Health and Medical Research Council (#2009295). R F Palma-Alvarez reports payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Angelini, Casen Recordati, Lundbeck, Neuraxpharm, Rubió, Servier, Takeda; support for attending meetings and/or travel Angelini, Italfarmaco, Advanz Pharma, Takeda, Lundbeck, Camurus; outside the submitted work. G Polanczyk reports royalties or licenses from Editora Manole; consulting fees from Apsen, EMS, Adium, Libbs; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Eurofarma; support for attending meetings and/or travel from Medice; outside the submitted work. M L Rolfzen reports grants or contracts from NIH NINDS T90DE034663 and the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists (foundation grant); outside the submitted work. X Qi reports support for the present manuscript from the National Institute on Aging (R01AG089856). P S Sachdev reports grants and contracts from National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, APP1169489 and NIH, USA; grants 1RF1AG057531-01 and 2R01AG057531-02A1; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Alkem Labs (as part of the Frontiers of Psychiatry 2023 seminar, Mumbai, India, June 2023); participation on a data safety monitoring board or advisory board for Biogen Australia Medical Advisory committee in 2020 and 2021, Roche Australia Medical Advisory Committee in 2022, Eli Lilly, Expert Advisory Panel, 2025 and Novo Nordisk, Expert Advisory Panel, 2025; leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, unpaid from International Neuropsychiatric Association and World Psychiatric Association; outside the submitted work. D F Santomauro reports support for the present manuscript and grants and contracts from Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington; support for attending meetings and/or travel from Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, University of Southern Denmark, World Health Summit; outside the submitted work. M Saylan reports payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Johnson & Johnson, Lundbeck; support for attending meetings and/or travel Johnson & Johnson and Abdi Ibrahim Pharmaceuticals; outside the submitted work. J P Silva reports support for the present manuscript from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (contract with reference 2021.01789.CEECIND/CP1662/CT0014). J A Singh reports consulting fees from ROMTech, Atheneum, Clearview healthcare partners, Yale, Hulio, Horizon Pharmaceuticals/DINORA, ANI/Exeltis, USA Inc., Frictionless Solutions, Schipher, Crealta/Horizon, Medisys, Fidia, PK Med, Two labs Inc., Adept Field Solutions, Clinical Care options, Putnam associates, Focus forward, Navigant consulting, Spherix, MedIQ, Jupiter Life Science, UBM LLC, Trio Health, Medscape, WebMD, and Practice Point communications; the NIH; and the American College of Rheumatology; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from the speaker’s bureau of Simply Speaking; support for attending meetings and/or travel as a Past steering committee member of OMERACT; participation on a Data Safety Monitoring Board or Advisory Board from FDA Arthritis Advisory Committee; leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, paid or unpaid as Past steering committee member of the OMERACT, an international organization that develops measures for clinical trials and receives arm’s length funding from 12 pharmaceutical companies; stock or stock options from Atyr pharmaceuticals, Atai life sciences, Kintara therapeutics, Intelligent Biosolutions, Acumen pharmaceutical, TPT Global Tech, Vaxart pharmaceuticals, Atyu biopharma, Adaptimmune Therapeutics, GeoVax Labs, Pieris Pharmaceuticals, Enzolytics Inc., Seres Therapeutics, Tonix Pharmaceuticals Holding Corp, Aebona Pharmaceuticals, and Charlotte’s Web Holdings, and previously owned stock options in Amarin, Viking and Moderna pharmaceuticals; outside the submitted work. R Tabares-Seisdedos reports grants or contracts from Valencian Regional Government’s Ministry of Education (PROMETEO/CIPROM/2022/58) and from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (PID2021-129099OB-I00)—The funders were not involved in the design of the manuscript or decision to submit the manuscript for publication, nor will they be involved in any aspect of the study’s conduct; all outside the submitted work. S J Tromans reports grants or contracts as part of the 2023/4 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey team, collecting epidemiological data on community-based adults living in England (contracted study from NHS Digital, via the Department of Health and Social Care); contribution to multiple chapters of the 2023/4 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey report; grants or contracts as Lead on a study funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Clinical Research Network, on optimising survey design for people with learning disability and autistic people; grants or contracts from the NIHR related to evaluating a national training programme for health and social care professionals relating to learning disability and autism; grants or contracts from the NIHR related to identification, recording, and reasonable adjustments for people with a learning disability and autistic people in NHS electronic clinical record systems; grants or contracts from the NIHR related to medication support interventions and strategies for people with learning disabilities; grants or contracts from the Bailey Thomas Charitable Fund investigating barriers, enablers and interventions to facilitate deprescribing for people with intellectual disability; grants or contracts from Jazz Pharmaceuticals related to the impact of cannabidiol on challenging behaviour among people with intellectual disability; grants or contracts on study relating to understanding the barriers and facilitators to clinical engagement and research involvement for adults with intellectual disability from minority ethnic backgrounds residing in the East Midlands; payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Cornwall Intellectual Disability Equitable Research (CIDER) to attend a conference, and Dartmouth Health later in 2026 relating to cannabidiol for people with intellectual disability; support for attending meetings and/or travel from the Royal College of Psychiatrists for accommodation and travel to conference events due to my academic secretary role in the faculty of the Psychiatry of Intellectual Disability; leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, paid or unpaid, as Academic Secretary and Executive Committee Member for the Neurodevelopmental Psychiatry Special Interest Group and Psychiatry of Intellectual Disability Faculty at the Royal College of Psychiatrists; role as Associate Editor for the Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities; Editorial Board Member for Progress in Neurology and Psychiatry, Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disability, Advances in Autism, BMC Psychiatry, and BJPsych Open; role as Editor of Psychiatry of Intellectual Disability Across Cultures (Oxford University Press); outside the submitted work. V-S Tseriotis reports grants or contracts from the European Academy of Neurology, European Committee for Treatment and Research in Multiple Sclerosis; Support for attending meetings and/or travel from Inovis, Genesis Pharma, Novartis; outside the submitted work. S Zadey reports Leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, paid or unpaid as Cofounding Director of the Association for Socially Applicable Research (ASAR), Chair of the Asia Working Group, The G4 Alliance, Fellow with Lancet Commission on a Citizen-Centered Health System for India, Research Aide Sr at Duke GEMINI Research Center, Drafting Committee Member for Maharashtra State Mental Health Policy, Adjunct Research Faculty at Dr D Y Patil University; outside the submitted work. M Zinchuk reports leadership or fiduciary role in other board, society, committee or advocacy group, unpaid as Member of the Mortality Prevention Task Force of the International League Against Epilepsy, outside the submitted work. All other authors declare no competing interests.