Pierau, M., Arra, A. & Brunner-Weinzierl, M. C. Preventing atopic diseases during childhood — early exposure matters. Front. Immunol. 12, 617731 (2021).
Bakker, J. M., van Bel, F. & Heijnen, C. J. Neonatal glucocorticoids and the developing brain: short-term treatment with life-long consequences? Trends Neurosci. 24, 649–653 (2001).
Kaplan, H. S. et al. Sensory input, sex and function shape hypothalamic cell type development. Nature 647, 157–168 (2025).
Smith, N. L. et al. Developmental origin governs CD8+ T cell fate decisions during infection. Cell 174, 117–130.e14 (2018).
Biagini Myers, J. M. & Khurana Hershey, G. K. Eczema in early life: genetics, the skin barrier, and lessons learned from birth cohort studies. J. Pediatr. 157, 704–714 (2010).
Schoos, A. M. Atopic diseases — diagnostics, mechanisms, and exposures. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 35, e14198 (2024).
Sakamoto, K. & Nagao, K. Mouse models for atopic dermatitis. Curr. Protoc. 3, e709 (2023).
Celedon, J. C. et al. Exposure to dust mite allergen and endotoxin in early life and asthma and atopy in childhood. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 120, 144–149 (2007).
Scalabrin, D. M. et al. Use of specific IgE in assessing the relevance of fungal and dust mite allergens to atopic dermatitis: a comparison with asthmatic and nonasthmatic control subjects.J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 104, 1273–1279 (1999).
Salo, P. M. et al. Exposure to Alternaria alternata in US homes is associated with asthma symptoms. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 118, 892–898 (2006).
Ewald, D. A. et al. Meta-analysis derived atopic dermatitis (MADAD) transcriptome defines a robust AD signature highlighting the involvement of atherosclerosis and lipid metabolism pathways. BMC Med. Genomics 8, 60 (2015).
Suarez-Farinas, M. et al. Expanding the psoriasis disease profile: interrogation of the skin and serum of patients with moderate-to-severe psoriasis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 132, 2552–2564 (2012).
Dhingra, N. et al. Molecular profiling of contact dermatitis skin identifies allergen-dependent differences in immune response. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 134, 362–372 (2014).
Brunner, P. M. et al. Early-onset pediatric atopic dermatitis is characterized by TH2/TH17/TH22-centered inflammation and lipid alterations. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 141, 2094–2106 (2018).
Esaki, H. et al. Early-onset pediatric atopic dermatitis is TH2 but also TH17 polarized in skin. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 138, 1639–1651 (2016).
Stamatas, G. N. et al. Early skin inflammatory biomarker is predictive of development and persistence of atopic dermatitis in infants. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 153, 1597–1603.e4 (2024).
Perner, C. et al. Substance P release by sensory neurons triggers dendritic cell migration and initiates the type-2 immune response to allergens. Immunity 53, 1063–1077.e7 (2020).
Serhan, N. et al. House dust mites activate nociceptor-mast cell clusters to drive type 2 skin inflammation. Nat. Immunol. 20, 1435–1443 (2019).
Renert-Yuval, Y. et al. The molecular features of normal and atopic dermatitis skin in infants, children, adolescents, and adults. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 148, 148–163 (2021).
Del Duca, E. et al. Intrapatient comparison of atopic dermatitis skin transcriptome shows differences between tape-strips and biopsies. Allergy 79, 80–92 (2024).
Nakajima, S. et al. IL-17A as an inducer for Th2 immune responses in murine atopic dermatitis models. J. Invest. Dermatol. 134, 2122–2130 (2014).
Ajendra, J. et al. IL-17A both initiates, via IFNγ suppression, and limits the pulmonary type-2 immune response to nematode infection. Mucosal Immunol. 13, 958–968 (2020).
Kim, J. M., Rasmussen, J. P. & Rudensky, A. Y. Regulatory T cells prevent catastrophic autoimmunity throughout the lifespan of mice. Nat. Immunol. 8, 191–197 (2007).
Kashem, S. W., Haniffa, M. & Kaplan, D. H. Antigen-presenting cells in the skin. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 35, 469–499 (2017).
Baeyens, A., Fang, V., Chen, C. & Schwab, S. R. Exit strategies: S1P signaling and T cell migration. Trends Immunol. 36, 778–787 (2015).
Major, J. et al. Type I and III interferons disrupt lung epithelial repair during recovery from viral infection. Science 369, 712–717 (2020).
Kumamoto, Y. et al. CD301b+ dermal dendritic cells drive T helper 2 cell-mediated immunity. Immunity 39, 733–743 (2013).
Bosteels, C. et al. Inflammatory type 2 cDCs acquire features of cDC1s and macrophages to orchestrate immunity to respiratory virus infection. Immunity 52, 1039–1056.e9 (2020).
de Winde, C. M., Munday, C. & Acton, S. E. Molecular mechanisms of dendritic cell migration in immunity and cancer. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 209, 515–529 (2020).
Liu, J., Zhang, X., Cheng, Y. & Cao, X. Dendritic cell migration in inflammation and immunity. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 18, 2461–2471 (2021).
Hirose, K. et al. Evidence for hormonal control of heart regenerative capacity during endothermy acquisition. Science 364, 184–188 (2019).
Hong, J. Y. et al. Long-term programming of CD8 T cell immunity by perinatal exposure to glucocorticoids. Cell 180, 847–861.e15 (2020).
Schmidt, M. V. et al. The postnatal development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the mouse. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 21, 125–132 (2003).
Morante-Palacios, O. et al. Coordinated glucocorticoid receptor and MAFB action induces tolerogenesis and epigenome remodeling in dendritic cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 50, 108–126 (2022).
Pieren, D. K. J., Boer, M. C. & de Wit, J. The adaptive immune system in early life: the shift makes it count. Front. Immunol. 13, 1031924 (2022).
Bee, G. C. W. et al. Age-dependent differences in efferocytosis determine the outcome of opsonophagocytic protection from invasive pathogens. Immunity 56, 1255–1268.e5 (2023).
Watson, N. B. et al. The gene regulatory basis of bystander activation in CD8+ T cells. Sci. Immunol. 9, eadf8776 (2024).
Eisenbarth, S. C. Dendritic cell subsets in T cell programming: location dictates function. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 19, 89–103 (2019).
Vantourout, P. & Hayday, A. Six-of-the-best: unique contributions of γδ T cells to immunology. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 13, 88–100 (2013).
Constantinides, M. G. et al. MAIT cells are imprinted by the microbiota in early life and promote tissue repair. Science https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax6624 (2019).
Schneider, C. et al. Tissue-resident group 2 innate lymphoid cells differentiate by layered ontogeny and in situ perinatal priming. Immunity 50, 1425–1438.e5 (2019).
Coles, M. C. et al. Role of T and NK cells and IL7/IL7r interactions during neonatal maturation of lymph nodes. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 13457–13462 (2006).
Wamboldt, M. Z., Laudenslager, M., Wamboldt, F. S., Kelsay, K. & Hewitt, J. Adolescents with atopic disorders have an attenuated cortisol response to laboratory stress. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 111, 509–514 (2003).
Klein, J. et al. Distinguishing features of long COVID identified through immune profiling. Nature 623, 139–148 (2023).
Serhan, N. et al. Maternal stress triggers early-life eczema through fetal mast cell programming. Nature 646, 161–170 (2025).
Makinen, T. et al. Inhibition of lymphangiogenesis with resulting lymphedema in transgenic mice expressing soluble VEGF receptor-3. Nat. Med. 7, 199–205 (2001).
Dobin, A. et al. STAR: ultrafast universal RNA-seq aligner. Bioinformatics 29, 15–21 (2013).
Love, M. I., Huber, W. & Anders, S. Moderated estimation of fold change and dispersion for RNA-seq data with DESeq2. Genome Biol. 15, 550 (2014).
Ramirez, F. et al. deepTools2: a next generation web server for deep-sequencing data analysis. Nucleic Acids Res. 44, W160–W165 (2016).
Chen, E. Y. et al. Enrichr: interactive and collaborative HTML5 gene list enrichment analysis tool. BMC Bioinformatics 14, 128 (2013).
Kovatch, P., Gai, L., Cho, H. M., Fluder, E. & Jiang, D. Optimizing high-performance computing systems for biomedical workloads. IEEE Int. Symp. Parallel Distrib. Process. Workshops Phd Forum 2020, 183–192 (2020).
Konieczny, P. et al. Interleukin-17 governs hypoxic adaptation of injured epithelium. Science 377, eabg9302 (2022).