Pestka, J. Toxicological mechanisms and potential health effects of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. World Mycotoxin J. 3, 323–347 (2010).
Ndiaye, S. et al. Current review of mycotoxin biodegradation and bioadsorption: microorganisms, mechanisms, and main important applications. Toxins 14, 729 (2022).
Alassane-Kpembi, I. et al. Co-exposure to low doses of the food contaminants deoxynivalenol and nivalenol has a synergistic inflammatory effect on intestinal explants. Arch. Toxicol. 91, 2677–2687 (2017).
Hasuda, A. L. et al. Deoxynivalenol induces apoptosis and inflammation in the liver: analysis using precision-cut liver slices. Food Chem. Toxicol. 163, 112930 (2022).
Wang, P. et al. Effective protective agents against organ toxicity of deoxynivalenol and their detoxification mechanisms: a review. Food Chem. Toxicol. 182, 114121 (2023).
Zhang, Y. et al. Deoxynivalenol: occurrence, toxicity, and degradation. Food Control 155, 110027 (2024).
Murtaza, B. et al. Recalling the reported toxicity assessment of deoxynivalenol, mitigating strategies and its toxicity mechanisms: comprehensive review. Chem.-Biol. Interact. 387, 110799 (2024).
Tu, Y., Liu, S., Cai, P. & Shan, T. Global distribution, toxicity to humans and animals, biodegradation, and nutritional mitigation of deoxynivalenol: a review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 22, 3951–3983 (2023).
Oguz, H. et al. In vitro mycotoxin binding capacities of clays, glucomannan and their combinations. Toxicon 214, 93–103 (2022).
Tapingkae, W. et al. IndustriaL-scale production of mycotoxin binder from the red yeast Sporidiobolus pararoseus KM281507. J. Fungi 8, 353 (2022).
Tian, Y. et al. Elimination of Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) via microbial and enzymatic strategies: Current status and future perspectives. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 124, 96–107 (2022).
Ben Taheur, F., Kouidhi, B., Al Qurashi, Y. M. A., Ben Salah-Abbès, J. & Chaieb, K. Review: Biotechnology of mycotoxins detoxification using microorganisms and enzymes. Toxicon 160, 12–22 (2019).
Recharla, N., Park, S., Kim, M., Kim, B. & Jeong, J. Y. Protective effects of biological feed additives on gut microbiota and the health of pigs exposed to deoxynivalenol: a review. J. Anim. Sci. Technol. 64, 640–653 (2022).
Jeong, J. Y., Kim, J., Kim, M. & Park, S. Efficacy of high-dose synbiotic additives for deoxynivalenol detoxification: effects on blood biochemistry, histology, and intestinal microbiome in weaned piglets. Biology 13, 889 (2024).
Wang, X., Yong, C. C. & Oh, S. Metabolites of Latilactobacillus curvatus BYB3 and indole activate aryl hydrocarbon receptor to attenuate lipopolysaccharide-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction. Food Sci. Anim. Resour. 42, 1046–1060 (2022).
Khalid, F. et al. Potential of Bacillus velezensis as a probiotic in animal feed: a review. J. Microbiol. 59, 627–633 (2021).
Li, C. et al. Screening and characterization of Bacillus velezensis LB-Y-1 toward selection as a potential probiotic for poultry with multi-enzyme production property. Front. Microbiol. 14, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1143265 (2023).
Dhouib, H. et al. Potential of a novel endophytic Bacillus velezensis in tomato growth promotion and protection against Verticillium wilt disease. Biol. Control 139, 104092 (2019).
Zeng, J., Huang, W., Tian, X., Hu, X. & Wu, Z. Brewer’s spent grain fermentation improves its soluble sugar and protein as well as enzymatic activities using Bacillus velezensis. Process Biochem. 111, 12–20 (2021).
Liu, Y. et al. Dietary Bacillus velezensis KNF-209 supplementation improves growth performance, enhances immunity, and promotes gut health in broilers. Poultry Sci. 103, 103946 (2024).
Chen, J., Zhang, X., He, Z., Xiong, D. & Long, M. Damage on intestinal barrier function and microbial detoxification of deoxynivalenol: a review. J. Integr. Agric. 23, 2507–2524 (2024).
Liu, M. et al. Chitosan oligosaccharide alleviates DON-induced liver injury via suppressing ferroptosis in mice. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 290, 117530 (2025).
Bai, Y. et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG ameliorates DON-induced intestinal damage depending on the enrichment of beneficial bacteria in weaned piglets. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol. 13, 90 (2022).
Pabst, O. et al. Gut-liver axis: barriers and functional circuits. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 20, 447–461 (2023).
Zheng, Z. & Wang, B. The gut-liver axis in health and disease: the role of gut microbiota-derived signals in liver injury and regeneration. Front. Immunol. 12, https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.775526 (2021).
Farid, W. et al. Gastrointestinal transit tolerance, cell surface hydrophobicity, and functional attributes of Lactobacillus Acidophilus strains isolated from Indigenous Dahi. Food Sci. Nutr. 9, 5092–5102 (2021).
Li, S. et al. Oral delivery of bacteria: Basic principles and biomedical applications. J. Control. Release 327, 801–833 (2020).
Tsang, R. S. W. et al. Culture-Confirmed Invasive meningococcal disease in Canada, 2010 to 2014: characterization of Serogroup B Neisseria meningitidis strains and their predicted coverage by the 4CMenB vaccine. mSphere 5, https://doi.org/10.1128/mSphere.00883-19 (2020).
Deng, Y. et al. Deoxynivalenol: emerging toxic mechanisms and control strategies, current and future perspectives. J. Agricult. Food Chem. 71, 10901–10915 (2023).
Liu, D., Wang, Q., He, W., Ge, L. & Huang, K. Deoxynivalenol aggravates the immunosuppression in piglets and PAMs under the condition of PEDV infection through inhibiting TLR4/NLRP3 signaling pathway. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 231, 113209 (2022).
Zhao, W. et al. Modulating effects of Astragalus polysaccharide on immune disorders via gut microbiota and the TLR4/NF-κB pathway in rats with syndrome of dampness stagnancy due to spleen deficiency. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B 24, 650–662 (2023).
Kamle, M. et al. Deoxynivalenol: an overview on occurrence, chemistry, biosynthesis, health effects and its detection, management, and control strategies in food and feed. Microbiol. Res. 13, 292–314 (2022).
Zhao, X. et al. Contamination and biotransformation of deoxynivalenol (DON) in common commercial foods: current status, challenges and future perspectives. Green Synth. Catal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gresc.2025.04.008 (2025).
Wang, L. L. et al. Food raw materials and food production occurrences of deoxynivalenol in different regions. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 83, 41–52 (2019).
Zhu La, A. T. et al. A New Bacillus velezensis strain CML532 improves chicken growth performance and reduces intestinal clostridium perfringens colonization. Microorganisms 12, https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12040771 (2024).
Dong, W. et al. Isolation of Bacillus licheniformis and its protective effect on liver oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by aflatoxin B1. Poultry Sci. 103, 104079 (2024).
Zhang, Q. et al. Characterization and antioxidant activity of released exopolysaccharide from potential probiotic Leuconostoc mesenteroides LM187. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 31, 1144–1153 (2021).
Bai, Y. et al. Gut microbiota mediates Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG alleviation of deoxynivalenol-induced anorexia. J. Agricult. Food Chem. 71, 8164–8181 (2023).
Broekaert, N., Devreese, M., De Baere, S., De Backer, P. & Croubels, S. Modified Fusarium mycotoxins unmasked: From occurrence in cereals to animal and human excretion. Food Chem. Toxicol. 80, 17–31 (2015).
Zhang, Y. et al. Deoxynivalenol: occurrence, toxicity, and degradation. Food Control 155,110027 (2024).
Monastero, R. N. & Pentyala, S. Cytokines as biomarkers and their respective clinical cutoff levels. Int. J. Inflamm. 2017, 4309485 (2017).
Ma, R. et al. Detoxification of DON-induced hepatotoxicity in mice by cold atmospheric plasma. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 280, 116547 (2024).
Kiela, P. R. & Ghishan, F. K. Physiology of intestinal absorption and secretion. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 30, 145–159 (2016).
Hanyu, H. et al. Mycotoxin deoxynivalenol has different impacts on intestinal barrier and stem cells by its route of exposure. Toxins 12, 610 (2020).
Zeisel, M. B., Dhawan, P. & Baumert, T. F. Tight junction proteins in gastrointestinal and liver disease. Gut 68, 547–561 (2019).
Liao, S. et al. Chloroquine improves deoxynivalenol-induced inflammatory response and intestinal mucosal damage in piglets. Oxid. Med. Cel. Longev. 2020, 1–13 (2020).
Ge, L. et al. Nontoxic-dose deoxynivalenol aggravates lipopolysaccharides-induced inflammation and tight junction disorder in IPEC-J2 cells through activation of NF-κB and LC3B. Food Chem. Toxicol. 145, 111712 (2020).
Selwyn, F. P., Cheng, S. L., Klaassen, C. D. & Cui, J. Y. Regulation of hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes in germ-free mice by conventionalization and probiotics. Drug Metabol. Dispos. 44, 262–274 (2016).
Chen, B. et al. Complete genome analysis of Bacillus velezensis TS5 and its potential as a probiotic strain in mice. Front. Microbiol. 14, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1322910 (2023).
Chelakkot, C., Ghim, J. & Ryu, S. H. Mechanisms regulating intestinal barrier integrity and its pathological implications. Exp. Mol. Med. 50, 1–9 (2018).
Wan, S. et al. Baicalin ameliorates the gut barrier function and intestinal microbiota of broiler chickens. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. 56, 634–644 (2024).
Lin, R. et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG supplementation modulates the gut microbiota to promote butyrate production, protecting against deoxynivalenol exposure in nude mice. Biochem. Pharmacol. 175, 113868 (2020).
Ma, K. et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG ameliorates deoxynivalenol-induced kidney oxidative damage and mitochondrial injury in weaned piglets. Food Funct. 13, 3905–3916 (2022).
Hays, K. E., Pfaffinger, J. M. & Ryznar, R. The interplay between gut microbiota, short-chain fatty acids, and implications for host health and disease. Gut Microbes 16, 2393270 (2024).
Yao, Y. et al. The role of short-chain fatty acids in immunity, inflammation and metabolism. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 62, 1–12 (2022).
Bruneau, A., Hundertmark, J., Guillot, A. & Tacke, F. Molecular and cellular mediators of the gut-liver axis in the progression of liver diseases. Front. Med. 8, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.725390 (2021).
Pestka, J. & Zhou, H.-R. Toll-like receptor priming sensitizes macrophages to proinflammatory cytokine gene induction by deoxynivalenol and other toxicants. Toxicol. Sci. 92, 445–455 (2006).
Fang, J., Yang, Y. & Xie, W. Chinese expert consensus on the application of live combined Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Enterococcus powder/capsule in digestive system diseases (2021). J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 38, 1089–1098 (2023).
Yi, R., Zhou, X., Liu, T., Xue, R. & Yang, Z. Amelioration effect of Lactobacillus plantarum KFY02 on low-fiber diet-induced constipation in mice by regulating gut microbiota. Front. Nutr. 9, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.938869 (2022).
Al-Sadi, R. et al. Lactobacillus acidophilus induces a strain- specific and toll-like receptor 2-dependent enhancement of intestinal epithelial tight junction barrier and protection against intestinal inflammation. Am. J. Pathol. 191, 872–884 (2021).
Niu, H. et al. Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus MN-431 producing indole derivatives on complementary feeding-induced diarrhea rat pups through the enhancement of the intestinal barrier function. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 66, 2100619 (2022).
Lai, H. C. et al. Gut microbiota modulates COPD pathogenesis: role of anti-inflammatory Parabacteroides goldsteinii lipopolysaccharide. Gut 71, 309–321 (2022).
Tan, H., Zhao, J., Zhang, H., Zhai, Q. & Chen, W. Novel strains of Bacteroides fragilis and Bacteroides ovatus alleviate the LPS-induced inflammation in mice. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 103, 2353–2365 (2019).
Liu, C. et al. Epigallocatechin gallate alleviates Staphylococcal Enterotoxin A-induced intestinal barrier damage by regulating gut microbiota and inhibiting the TLR4-NF-κB/MAPKs-NLRP3 inflammatory cascade. J. Agricult. Food Chem. 71, 16286–16302 (2023).
Mao, X. et al. Deoxynivalenol induces caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis and inflammation in mouse liver and HepaRG cells. Arch. Toxicol. 96, 3091–3112 (2022).
Mennah-Govela, Y. A., Swackhamer, C. & Bornhorst, G. M. Gastric secretion rate and protein concentration impact intragastric pH and protein hydrolysis during dynamic in vitro gastric digestion. Food Hydrocoll. Health 1, 100027 (2021).
Jiang, Y. et al. Oral administration of Bacillus cereus GW-01 alleviates the accumulation and detrimental effects of ?-cypermethrin in mice. Chemosphere 312, 137333 (2023).
Qi, N. et al. Isolation and characterization of a novel hydrolase-producing probiotic Bacillus licheniformis and its application in the fermentation of soybean meal. Front. Nutr. 10, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1123422 (2023).
Zhao, J. et al. Mechanism of β-cypermethrin metabolism by Bacillus cereus GW-01. Chem. Eng. J. 430, 132961 (2022).
Kuebutornye, F. K. A. et al. In vitro assessment of the probiotic characteristics of three Bacillus species from the gut of Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Probiot. Antimicrob. Proteins 12, 412–424 (2020).
Fernández, M. F., Boris, S. & Barbés, C. Probiotic properties of human lactobacilli strains to be used in the gastrointestinal tract. J. Appl. Microbiol. 94, 449–455 (2003).
Kang, R. et al. Toxicokinetics of deoxynivalenol in Dezhou male donkeys after oral administration. Toxins 15, https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15070426 (2023).
Luo, J., Xiao, S., Wang, B., Cai, Y. & Wang, J. In vitro fermentation of pineapple-whey protein fermentation product on human intestinal microbiota derived from fecal microbiota transplant donors. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 191, 115637 (2024).